UC-NRLF 


137 


LIBRARY 

UNIVERSITY  Of 
CAllPOtNIA 


f     '"' 

-  ^^  ;     . 


EX  Ll-BRtS 

JAMES  MCP1 

WOOD 


IEj)«I  of  progress: 


ESSAYS,  LECTURES  AND  MISCELLANIES 


THEMES  OF  THE  DAY. 


WM.  MAXWELL  WOOD,  M.  D., 

SURGEOX   U.    S.    NAVY. 

Author  of  "The  True  Sources  of  Subordination,"  "  Wandering  Sketches  in  South 
America,  Polynesia,"  &c. 


BUFFALO : 

DERBY,   ORTON  AND   MULLIGAN. 
AUBFRN:  DERBY  &  MILLER. 

J  8  5  3 . 


GIFT 


TO 

JOSHUA  I.  COHEN,  M.  D., 

OP     THE     CITY     OF     BALTIMORE. 

THE   FRIEND, 

UOVEN     BY    TIME   AND    THE    HOUR   OF   NEED 
THIS  LITTLE  VOLUME 

13 

OEttf)  f&cra  JFceltnjj  of  (Grateful  &rmrmfcrancf, 

RESPECTFL'LLY     INSCRIBED, 

BY 
THE   AUTHOR. 


'89 


PREFACE. 


The  most  which  the  author  claims  for  the  collection 
which  forms  this  volume  is,  that  it  may  be  taken  as  evi 
dence  that,  according  to  his  humble  ability,  he  has  endea 
vored  to  do  what  he  believed  to  be  his  duty,  as  a  citizen 
of  the  republic,  as  a  member  of  the  profession,  and  of  the 
service  to  which  he  belongs. 

A  sufficient  motive  for  making  the  publication  may  be 
found  in  the  natural  desire,  to  gather  up,  at  least  a  part  of 
the  dispersed,  and,  in  some  instances,  unnamed  members  of 
his  literary  family.  He  has  felt  encouraged  to  do  so  by 
the  fact  that  such  of  the  essays  and  lectures  as  have  been 
published  have  met  with  a  friendly  reception  ;  and  as  the 
questions  to  which  they  relate  are  still  in  progress,  he  hopes 
that  their  usefulness,  if  they  have  any,  may  be  continued. 

The  medical  address  "was  originally  written  for  the  pages 
of  the  Buffalo  Medical  Journal,  and  at  the  solicitation 
of  eminent  professional  brethren  was  published  in  pam 
phlet  form.  It  was  issued  under  the  auspices  of  the  Fac 
ulty  of  the  'Buffalo  Medical  College,  and  owing  to  the 
recommendation  of  these  gentlemen  and  of  the  medical 
press,  it  was  culled  for  in  all  sections  of  the  Union.  F\»r 
more  than  thirteen  years  the  author  has  been  a  writer  upon 


P  11  E  F  A  0  K  . 


the  subject  of  naval  reform,  and  at  times  under  great  dis 
couragements.  Public  and  naval  opinion  seems  now  settled 
upon  the  necessity  for  such  reform.  It  is  advocated  by  the 
press  at  large,  and  by  some  of  the  most  able  and  efficient 
writers  in  the  country.  But,  still,  it  <s  not  yet  effected. 
The  essay  upon  "The  Naval  Institutions  of  a  Republic"  is 
the  last  of  five  pamphlets  which  its  author  has  produced 
upon  this  subject,  all  of  which  have  had  the  favorable 
notice  of  the  newspaper  and  periodical  press  generally. 
Two  editions  of  this  essay  have  been  published,  and  it 
has  been  read  from  with  approbation  upon  the  floor  of 
Congress. 

The  lecture  upon  the  "  Obligations  of  Young  Men  to  the 
Republic,"  and  the  Historical  View  of  Erie  County,  Pa., 
have  never  before  been  published. 


PARTY  PRESIDENTS. 


[As  the  following  article  bad  the  honor  of  being- 
attributed  by  the  Philadelphia  U.  S.  Gazette,  to  the 
Hon.  Daniel  Webster  when  Secretary  of  State  in  the 
administration  of  President  Tyler,  I  hope  that  I  may 
now  be  permitted  to  claim  its  responsibility. 

I  am  as  fully  aware,  as  any  of  my  readers  will  be, 
of  the  hasty  judgment  which  led  to  the  error;  but 
still  the  fact  is  worth  mentioning,  if  only  as  an  in 
stance  of  the  mistakes  which  may  be  made  even  by  a 
paper  of  so  much  character  as  the  Gazette — then 
under  the  editorial  charge  of  the  Hon.  JOSEPH  R. 
CHANDLER.] 


PARTY  PRESIDENTS. 


"  Those  who  are  not  for  us  are  against  us  "  is  the 
uncompromising  motto  of  party  discipline;  a  discipline 
which,  like  the  bed  of  Procrustes,  brings  the  short  and 
the  long  to  the  same  stature,  and  admits  of  no  standard 
of  merit  but  blind  conformity  to  its  will.  The  wild 
storm  of  party  spirit  has  swept  with  tornado  violence 
over  the  institutions  of  our  Republic,  prostrated  its 
prosperity,  and  will  yet  howl  over  its  destruction,  un 
less  a  true  and  firm  patriotism  breasts  its  fury.  The 
politics  of  honesty  and  those  of  party  are  wholly 
incompatible  with  each  other ;  for  the  former  would 
inquire  into  the  bearing  of  measures  upon  the  public 
good,  and  the  minds  of  men  being  proverbially  various, 
those  who  might  be  united  upon  certain  measures 
would  differ  upon  others:  a  universal  agreement  marks 
a  sinister  purpose  —  the  selfish  advancement  of  the 

party  for  its  own  sake.      This  being  the  great  end, 
1* 


1 0  V  A  H  T  V    PRESIDENTS. 

measures  become  only  worthy  of  consideration  as  they 
tend  to  the  advancement  of  this  end,  and  the  public 
good  is  lost  in  the  good  of  the  party. 

As  all  organizations  require  some  one  to  lead 
and  control  them,  these  leaders  alone  are  permitted 
to  think  for,  and  to  devise  the  measures  of  the  party; 
and  to  them  every  other  individual  surrenders  the 
independence  of  his  thought  and  action. 

The  only  inquiry  to  be  made  is — Is  a  measure  sanc 
tioned  or  opposed  by  the  party  to  which  I  belong? 
and,  accordingly,  it  is  carried  out  or  destroyed  without 
further  investigation. 

When  the  great  mass  of  the  population  of  this  Union 
united  under  the  banner  of  General  Harrison  in  oppo 
sition  to  the  administration  of  Martin  Van  Buren, 
that  mass  was  composed  of  men  of  every  variety  of 
political  sentiment,  and  their  common  bond  of  union, 
was  opposition  to  the  selfish  policy  of  an  administra 
tion,  which  had  no  political  principles  but  such  as  led 
to  the  dominancy  of  the  party,  and  consequently,  ad 
vocated  every  principle  according  to  the  locality  of  its 
popularity.  While  such  trimming  would  answer  for 


PARTY      PRESIDENTS.  11 


a  time,  and,  unfortunately,  for  too  long  a  time,  it 
finally  became  apparent  to  the  good  sense  of  the  com 
munity,  and  instituted  the  league  of  honest,  though 
differing  politicians,  against  the  unanimity  of  selfish 
and  dishonest  ones. 

Had  the  Whig  party,  made  up  as  it  was  of  so  many 
different  views,  found  any  one  who  would  have  suited 
the  views  of  each  division,  it  must  have  been  by  a 
deceptions  course  toward  each  component  branch  of 
the  party,  and  a  change  of  administration  would  have 
been  only  driving  out  one  set  selfishly  devoted  to  its 
own  interests,  to  introduce  another  of  precisely  the 
same  character.  No  man  could  entertain  honest  po 
litical  sentiments  of  his  own  and  agree  with  every 
section  of  the  then  Whig  or  opposition  party. 

From  their  own  compound  principles,  no  political 
union  could  have  greater  reason  for  forbearance  to 
ward  the  sentiments  of  those,  who  from  their  personal 
and  general  popularity  were  appointed  the  leaders  of 
this  union;  and  the  greatest  evidence  which  could  be 
given  of  the  popularity  of  the  selection,  and  of  the 
honesty  of  these  leaders,  was  given  by  their  daring  to 


12  PARTY     P  U  E  S  i  D  K  N.T.S  . 


differ  from  portions  of  the  party  which  elevated  them 
to  power;  preferring  to  be  honest  men,  rather  than  to 
seek  popularity  by  trimming  to  all ;  and  being  unwil 
ling  to  sacrifice  what  they  believed  to  be  the  best 
interests  of  the  country  to  their  own  good. 

Honesty  in  the  administration  of  our  government 
is  its  only  security ;  for  erroneous  opinions  in  the  minds 
of  honest  men  will  be  openly  exposed  and  subjected 
to  correction ;  but  dishonest  and  able  men  will  seek  to 
make  every  national  interest  bend -to  the  particular 
course  or  opinions  upon  which  their  own  power  may 
depend.  Therefore  our  great  national  interests  are 
safest  in  the  hands  of  those,  who  have  the  firmness 
and  integrity  of  purpose  to  adhere  to  the  honest  con 
victions  of  their  own  minds,  rather  than  to  sell  every 
sacred  principle  to  the  exactions  of  a  blind  party 
spirit. 

The  editorial  columns  of  the  "  United  States  Ga 
zette,"  a  few  days  after  the  appearance  of  the  fore 
going  article,  quoting  the  opening  paragraph,  com 
mented  as  follows: 


!'  A  It  T  V      P  R  E  S  1  1)  fc  X  T  S  .  1  3 


"It  is  understood  that  the  cabinet  officers  who  write 
for  the  Madisonian,  have  the  use  of  the  editorial  col 
umns;  and  the  '  W.'  which  stands  as  the  signature  of 
the  pen  from  which  the  above  is  extracted,  would  seem 
to  intimate  a  high  origin  to  the  communication." 

Although  flattered  by  the  mistake  of  authorship,  I 
Lad  no  reason  to  feel  in  the  least  so,  by  the  remarks 
upon  the  sentiments  and  principles  of  the  article,  and 
the  best  excuse  I  can  make  for  not  relieving  Mr. 
Webster  from  censure,  which  was  due  to  my  humble 
self,  is,  that  he  could  better  afford  to  bear  it  ;  and  the 
correction  would  have  been  indulging  vanity  under 
the  affectation  of  magnanimity.  I,  however,  felt,  un 
der  the  circumstances,  the  more  bound  to  utter  my 
protest  against  the  assaults  made  upon  him  at  that 
time,  which  I  did  in  the  following  article: 


A  citizen  of  this  Union,  who  refuses  to  become  the 
humble  tool  of  party  leaders,  who  disdains  to  have 
his  intellectual  views  bandaged  by  party  measures, 


J  1  DANIEL     W  E  15  8  T  E  R  . 


but  who  maintains  the  independent  right  of  a  freeman 
to  examine  into  the  great  measures  affecting  the 
national  interests,  to  separate  them  from  the  personal 
popularity  of  their  advocates,  and  to  investigate  their 
intrinsic  character  and  bearing;  who  chooses  to  be  the 
patriot  rather  than  the  partisan ;  while  such  a  citizen 
may,  from  a  conviction  of  their  injurious  tendency, 
array  himself  in  opposition  to  the  measures  of  any 
statesman,  he  will  yield  him  respect,  proportioned  to 
the  dignity  of  intellect,  and  honesty  of  character,  by 
which  these  measures  are  sustained.  While  he  may 
dissent  from  their  principles,  he  will  feel  proud  that 
his  country  can  produce  men,  who,  though  of  diverse 
views,  sustain  their  respective  principles  by  an  amount 
of  intellectual  power  claiming  the  admiration  of  the 
world,  and  he  will  regard  their  eminence  as  a  legiti 
mate  source  of  national  pride. 

But  a  debased  party  spirit,  selfish  and  groveling  in 
its  character,  and  blinded  by  prejudice,  cannot  perceive 
the  brilliancy  of  a  pure  and  lofty  character.  Acknowl 
edging  no  incentive  but  party  success,  it  reduces  the 
motives  of  others  to  the  standard  of  its  own  compre- 


D  A  N  1  E  L     W  K  I!  W  T  K  K  . 


hension,  and  is  incompetent  to  judge  of  high  motives 
of  action.  Love  of  country,  and  a  sense  of  duty,  are 
incentives  too  lofty  to  be  appreciated  by  the  spirit 
which,  Arnold  like,  would  sacrifice  national  honor  and 
prosperity  to  its  own  interests. 

The  gentleman  whose  name  heads  this  article  has 
been  assailed  as  a  prominent  mark,  by  an  unprincipled 
party  spirit;  and  every  true-hearted  citizen  of  the 
United  States,  who  has  felt  a  personal  pride  in  the 
great  names  which  his  country  has  given  to  fame,  and 
to  history,  must  have  felt  pained,  humbled  and  morti 
fied  by  the  vituperation  and  abuse  which  this  spirit 
has  hurled  upon  the  fame  of  Daniel  Webster.  Who 
and  what  is  the  man  thus  assailed  ?  Let  the  intelli 
gence  and  the  heart  of  every  patriot,  aye,  almost  of 
every  child,  give  the  answer.  It  is  he  to  whom  the 
world  points  with  confidence,  when  we  would  claim 
the  admiration  of  strangers  for  the  eloquence  and 
statesmanship  of  our  country.  Eloquence  which  has 
raised  still  higher  the  already  lofty  character  of  our 
Senate  Chamber,  and  which  has  gone  to  the  minds 
and  hearts  of  men  wherever  the  English  language  is 


T)  A  N  I  K  1.      W  E  13  S  T  E  K  . 


known :  an  eloquence  which  not  alone  soothes  the  ear 
and  excites  the  fancy  by  harmonious  periods  and 
glowing  figures,  but  which  takes  possession  of  the 
most  capacious  minds  by  the  vigor  of  its  thought  and 
the  power  of  its  judgment.  The  man,  now,  thus 
assailed,  is  he  from  whom,  but  a  little  while  since,  we 
justly  derived  a  national  compliment,  in  seeing  him, 
the  plain  republican,  the  architect  of  his  own  fortune, 
a  splendid  but  genuine  production  of  democracy  — 
receiving  the  homage  of  the  most  haughty  aristocrats 
of  Europe;  asserting  in  his  own  character  the  dignity 
of  the  nobility  of  nature,  in  the  midst  of  that  of 
coronets,  and  unassumingly  receiving  the  courtesies  of 
those  whose  brows  they  decorated.*  It  is  he  who 
stands  preeminent  in  the  front  rank  of  the  statesmen 
of  the  world,  and  whose  fame  is  almost  a  part  of  the 
most  perfect  existing  political  organization,  the  per 
petuity  of  which  is  a  guarantee  for  that  of  the  name  of 
Daniel  Webster;  and  even  though  the  constitution 
itself  should  be  overwhelmed  by  the  turbulence  and 


Mr.  Webster  had  not  long  before  this  returned  from  England. 


D  A  N  i  E  L     W  E  B  S  T  E  R  .  1  7 


convulsions  of  political  strife,  its  very  ruins  become 
an  enduring  monument  to  the  fame  of  him  who  was 
its  most  firm  defender  and  most  able  expositor. 

Why  is  it  that  the  man  whose  character  has  become 
a  national  monument  is  thus  assailed?  Is  it  because 
in  a  time  of  great  need,  and  when  extensive  national 
interests  are  to  be  adjudicated,  he  occupies  an  impor 
tant  official  station,  which  enables  him  best  to  serve 
his  country  ?  Those  who  are  actuated  by  a  desire  for 
the  spoils  of  office,  would  prostrate  the  most  able  men 
of  the  age,  that  they  may  reach  those  spoils,  and  sup 
pose  all  men  to  be  actuated  by  the  same  mean  motives 
which  influence  themselves.  Degraded,  indeed,  must 
be  the  mind  which  can  suppose  no  other  inducement 
to  encounter  the  labor  and  responsibilities  of  elevated 
office,  but  pecuniary  compensation.  But  even  those 
of  such  limited  views  we  think,  would  reflect,  that  he 
whose  professional  reputation  can  command  more 
employment  than  any  human  mind  or  body  could 
accomplish,  would  find,  in  the  salary  of  office,  but 
little  inducement  to  encounter  its  labors.  Its  extrinsic 
honors  can  weigh  but  little  with  one  of  such  extended 


18  DANIEL     WEBSTER. 


fame,  and  the  office  of  Secretary  of  State,  can  add 
nothing  to  the  fame  of  Daniel  Webster  save  as  it  marks 
his  readiness  to  devote  his  powers  to  the  service  of  his 
country.  Surely,  patriotism  and  virtuous  motives  of 
action  are  yet  to  be  found  among  our  countrymen, 
and  we  can  no  where  look  for  them  with  so  much 
confidence  as  in  those  whose  whole  lives  have  been 
one  continued  flow  of  patriotic  exertion.  The  true 
sphere  of  such  men  is  in  the  councils  of  the  nation. 

The  spirit  of  party  which  thus  assails  the  personal 
character  of  its  political  opponents,  is  more  than  the 
spirit  which  would,  with  vandal  barbarism,  destroy 
the  libraries,  specimens  of  art,  and  monuments  of  a 
hostile  nation ;  for  it  seeks  to  mutilate  and  destroy  the 
most  honorable  specimens  of  its  country's  greatness; 
to  overturn  and  deface  that  which  it  cannot  appreciate. 
What  are  patriotism  and  considerations  of  national 
greatness  with  those  who  are  led  on  by  spoils  and 
plunder?  They  are  unknown;  they  can  not  be  un 
derstood  by  them. 

The  political  course  of  Daniel  Webster  is  U-l'oiv  the 
nation;  let  those  opposed  to  it  attack  it;  expose  its 


DANIEL     WEBSTER.  ]9 


defects,  defeat  it.  But  when  selfish  politicians,  inca 
pable  of  higher  modes  of  attack,  attempt  to  blacken 
his  name  with  low  abuse  and  vile  slanders,  they  arouse 
the  honest  patriotism  of  all  who  are  not  under  their 
evil  influences,  whether  his  political  friend  or  oppo 
nent,  and  as  the  foreign  invader,  who,  in  the  hour  of 
triumph,  mutilates  our  monuments  of  marble,  excites 
indignation  and  contempt,  these  emotions  are  far 
greater  toward  him  whose  traitor  pen  would  desecrate 
the  more  noble,  intellectual  monuments  of  his  country's 
fame. 


SPIRIT  OF  DEMOCRACY. 


SPIRIT  OF  DEMOCRACY. 

That  influence,  which,  next  to  and  confederate  with 
Christianity,  has  done  more  for  the  dignity  of  human 
nature,  and  contributed  most  to  the  happiness  of  the 
human  family,  is  the  Spirit  of  Democracy.  It  is  an 
influence  springing  from  the  nature  of  man,  and  both 
blind  and  vain  is  any  contest  between  the  narrow, 
selfish  and  exclusive  institutions  established  for  the 
benefit  of  a  favored  few,  and  that  steadily  advancing 
principle  which  is  a  law  of  God,  and  which  has  for  its 
ultimate  object  the  benefit  of  the  whole  human  race. 
History  has  done  much  to  conceal  the  influence  of  this 
spirit,  in  effecting  the  improvements  in  man's  condition 
which  have  marked  advancing  ages;  for,  in  recording 
the  deeds  of  prominent  individuals,  it  has  too  often 
forgotten  to  point  out  how  far  those  individuals  were 
the  creatures  of  the  times  in  which  they  lived,  and 


24  SPIRIT  OF  DEMOCRACY. 


how  f-di-  their  characters  were  moulded  and  controlled 
by  that  of  the  masses  whose  movements  they  appeared 
to  direct  or  lead.  Such  individuals  are  but  the  points 
upon  which  the  prevailing  spirit  of  the  age  concen 
trates  itself,  and  are  the  levers  through  which  the  mov 
ing  power  acts.  Even  the  glorious  character  of  our 
own  Washington,  the  most  perfect  one  history  pre 
sents,  was  the  creation  of  a  spirit  of  liberty  which  had 
been  diffusing  and  extending  itself  among  the  people, 
from  the  time  when  the  refugees  of  political  and  eccle 
siastical  tyranny  first  sought  an  asylum  in  the  wilds 
of  our  continent. 

What  have  individuals,  who  have  been  sustained  by 
all  the  institutions  of  despotism,  and  had  control  of  its 
forces,  done  for  the  people  ?  How  have  they  directed 
these  influences  otherwise  than  against  the  interests  of 
the  people,  save  when,  from  weakness  or  danger  threat 
ening  themselves,  they  have  been  compelled  to  pay 
a  tribute  to  popular  privilege,  for  the  aid  and  support 
asked  of  the  mass.  Monarchs  and  aristocracies  have 
made  brilliant  contributions  to  national  glory,  but  not 


SPIRIT     OF     DEMOCRACY. 


in  contests  to  establish  principles  beneficial  to  the 
people  at  large,  so  much  as  from  selfish  motives,  to 
sustain  their  personal  interests  which  they  have  re 
garded  as  those  of  their  nation. 

The  spirit  of  democracy,  which  lurked  a  hidden 
spark  among  the  people  in  their  darkest  days,  has 
won  every  human  right  from  despotism  in  despite  of 
the  powers  of  despotism,  and  contrary  to  the  habits, 
thoughts  and  education  of  the  people  themselves. 
Who,  then,  shall  calculate  its  influence  when  it  no  lon 
ger  lurks  a  hidden  spark,  but  from  almost  an  entire 
continent,  in  open  blaze,  sheds  its  light  upon  the  world, 
and  even  where  it  is  forbidden  to  manifest  itself,  burns 
with  scarce  controllable  force  beneath  the  institutions 
which  seek  to  suppress  and  extinguish  it  ?  The  spirit 
of  democracy  has  never  receded;  every  political  con 
vulsion,  no  matter  what  the  result,  has  tended  to  the 
healthful  advancement  of  democratic  principles.  Even 
the  splendid  drama  of  Napoleon's  history  has  been 
subordinate  to  this  end.  It  swept  from  the  mind  of 
Europe  the  paralyzing  influence  of  legitimacy,  and 
showed  that  the  people  could  erect  from  themselves  a 


26  SPIRIT     OF    DEMOCRACY. 


throne,  mocking,  by  its  power  and  splendor,  that  of 
regal  descent. 

The  enemies  of  democracy  point  to  its  turbulent 
out-breaks  as  evidence  of  its  unhappy  influences  upon 
domestic  existence,  and  stigmatize  democracy  as 
mobocracy.  We  are  far,  very  far,  from  advocating  or 
defending  any  violations  of  law  or  order,  and  we  deny 
that  such  violations  are  the  consequence  of  democracy ; 
but  before  condemning  any  organization  for  its  imper 
fections,  it  will  be  well  to  examine  if  greater  imper 
fections  do  not  manifest  themselves  in  opposing  organ 
izations. 

The  outbreaks  of  a  mob,  not  being  a  systematic  vio 
lation  of  human  rights  and  justice,  to  which  observation 
has  become  accustomed,  strike  the  attention  promi 
nently  and  forcibly ;  while  outrages  upon  right  and 
justice,  beyond  all  comparison  far  more  extensive,  may 
be  committed  under  the  sanction  of  a  legalized  des 
potism,  without  attracting  general  remark,  and  with 
this  great  difference:  the  injuries  of  a  mob  are,  in 
time  and  place,  limited  and  local ;  those  of  a  despot 
ism  wide  as  its  domain,  and  ever  acting,  night  and 


SPIRIT     OF     DEMOCRACY.  27 


day.  What  injury  to  life  and  property  can  be  com 
mitted  by  any  mob,  to  be  measured  by  those  horrible 
outrages  which  rob  a  whole  people  of  their  sustenance, 
and  drive  them  to  vice,  jails,  and  alms-houses,  that  a 
favored  few  may  riot  in  splendid  pageantry,  and  laugh ' 
in  luxury  at  surrounding  misery?  Again,  the  legal 
outrages  of  despotism  are,  in  most  cases,  the  delibe 
rate  result  of  studied  vice  and  selfishness;  the  irregu 
lar  outrages  of  a  mob  are  the  spontaneous  rush  of 
many  minds  to  one  point,  and  that  point  a  principle  of 
virtue.  No  matter  what  the  violation  of  law  and  order, 
no  matter  how  degraded  the  agents,  the  purpose  of  a 
mob  is  generally  to  vindicate  what  it  believes  to  be 
some  violation  of  law,  right  or  virtue.  The  motive  is 
good,  is  proof  of  the  purity  and  dignity  of  the  Dem 
ocratic  spirit,  though  the  mode  of  its  exhibition  is 
bad,  and  is  to  be  deplored.  Better,  however,  that  this 
spirit  in  its  exuberance  should  occasionally  storm  the 
law  under  virtuous  impulses,  than  that  an  uniform 
quiet  should  be  produced  by  a  systematic  violation  of 
virtue,  human  rights  and  human  happiness. 

The  enemies  of  democracy  also  contend  that  the 


28  SPIRIT    OF    DEMOCRACY. 


necessarily  uneducated  condition  of  the  mass  is  ad 
verse  to  their  capability  for  self-government.  Such 
persons  have  looked  superficially  to  the  influences  of 
the  spirit  of  democracy.  Those  who  live  under  its  in 
stitutions,  even  though  without  the  acquirements  of 
letters,  are  not  uneducated.  From  their  earliest  youth 
they  are  thrown  into  unrestrained  rivalry  and  colli 
sion  with  each  other,  which  brings  into  play  all  their 
resources  and  develops  their  faculties,  under  the  stimu 
lus  that  success,  in  any  pursuit,  depends  more  upon 
individual  merit,  than  upon  adventitious  circumstances. 
Each  one  feels  that  he  has  a  personal  interest  and 
control  in  the  policy  of  his  country ;  its  principles  are 
discussed  before  him  and  by  him;  they  are  submitted 
to  his  judgment  and  decision.  Hence,  the  citizens  of 
a  republic,  however  illiterate,  coarse  and  unrefined,  are 
educated;  have  their  faculties  under  continual  cultiva 
tion,  for  the  practical  purposes  of  life.  Increasing 
time  will  proportionally  mark  the  effects  of  this  edu 
cation,  as  our  national  character  is  yet  forming  under 
the  influence  of  our  institutions. 

The  spirit  of  democracy  has,  likewise,  a  favorable 


SPIRIT    OF     DEMOCRACY.  29 


and  humanizing  effect  upon  the  manners  of  those  with 
in  its  influence.  The  manners  of  a  democratic  people 
may  riot  be  marked  by  the  conventional  forms  and 
ceremonies,  which  characterize  a  courtly  or  aristocratic 
society,  but  there  are  principles  at  work  which  give  a 
general  diffusion  to  a  courtesy  springing  frcm  the  heart, 
although  it  may  be  sometimes  ungracefully  manifested. 
In  a  country  where  people  are  divided,  by  polit 
ical  institutions,  into  ranks  and  castes,  peculiarity  of 
manner  will  attach  to  those  divisions;  and  those  who 
pride  themselves  upon  belonging  to  the  higher  orders, 
will  naturally  seek  to  mark  their  position  by  a  reserve 
or  even  rudeness  toward  those  unknown  to  them,  or 
known  to  be  beneath  them ;  on  the  other  hand,  those 
of  inferior  rank,  when  with  admitted  superiors,  will 
display  an  humiliating  subserviency,  for  which  they 
will  endeavor  to  compensate  themselves,  when  their 
true  position  is  unknown,  by  vulgar  imitations  of  the 
arrogance  of  their  superiors,  and  hence,  in  the  promis 
cuous  intercourse  of  society,  manners  will  be  marked 
by  the  polished  assumption  and  arrogance  of  pride,  or 
its  coarse  and  vulgar  imitations.  But  in  a  country  of 


30  SPIRIT    OF    DEMOCRACY. 


political  equality,  the  highest  social  rank  is  that  of  a 
gentleman,  and  this  being  defined  by  no  station  or 
pursuit,  all  feel  that  they  have  a  claim  to  it,  and  will, 
to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  according  to  circumstances, 
cultivate  corresponding  manners,  making  affability  and 
courtesy  general,  as  has  been  testified  to  by  foreign 
writers  upon  our  country. 

The  literature  of  our  country  will  take  its  tone  and 
character  from  the  spirit  of  democracy,  and  will  again 
have  a  reflected  and  stimulated  influence  upon  that 
spirit.  The  influence  of  hereditary  usages  and  au 
thority,  of  superior  and  exclusive  classes,  is  to  give 
weight  to  dogmas  and  doctrines;  to  make  the  precepts 
of  individuals  and  the  dicta  of  schools  superior  to  the 
principles  of  truth;  and  it  is  only  by  such  influence 
that  these  usages,  authority  and  exclusive  classes  can 
maintain  their  position,  and  hence  it  is  inculcated  as  a 
greater  merit  to  adhere  to  long  established  and  pre 
scribed  views,  than  to  be  guilty  of  the  heresy  of  show 
ing  forth  their  weakness  or  error.  The  continuance  of 
despotic  governments  and  governmental  religions  de 
pends  upon  the  suppression  of  the  freedom  of  thought 


s  i'  i  n  i  T   o  F    u  ]•:  M  o  e  i;  A  c  v  .  31 

and  investigation.  The  influence  of  democracy,  on 
the  contrary,  is  to  send  forth  all  minds  boldly  in  search 
of  those  truths  and  facts  which  contribute  most  to  the 
general  good  and  happiness.  So  untrammeled  are 
incus  minds,  that  many  strange  and  novel  ideas,  theo 
ries  and  plans  may  be  presented,  as  is  seen  in  the 
sphere  of  mechanical  invention,  but  none  will  become 
permanent  but  such  as  stand  the  test  of  the  general 
welfare. 

In  connection  with  this  part  of  our  subject,  we  will 
notice  another  charge  often  brought  against  the  prac 
ticability  of  democratic  governments:  the  want  of 
permanency  and  stability  in  their  measures.  We 
think  that,  from  the  very  nature  of  democracy — its 
being  a  law  of  God,  established  among  men,  and  the 
same  in  all  ages,  having  at  all  times  the  same  ultimate 
object  in  view,  and  that  object  the  universal  good  of 
the  human  race — that  its  measures  are  those  alone 
which  will  be  permanent  and  stable.  True,  measures 
and  policy  must  be  experimental  and  varying  until 
those  which  are  in  exact  accordance  with  the  principle 
of  democracy  are  discovered,  and  none  can  exist  but 


32  SPIRIT     OF    DEMOCRACY. 


those  which  have  this  accordance.  Measures  which 
are  now  the  settled  and  permanent  policy  of  our 
country,  have  had  to  struggle  into  existence  through 
the  discord  of  opposing  influences;  and  measures 
which  are  now  subjects  of  doubt,  contest  and  opposi 
tion,  will  eventually  be  acknowledged  as  the  true  fruit 
of  democratic  principles  and  claim  a  general  reception. 
The  spirit  of  democracy  is  ever  onward,  it  cannot  re 
cede,  and  none  can  see  its  limits  or  its  end.  The  in 
fluences,  at  which  we  have  glanced,  are  constantly 
acting  and  reacting  upon  each  other,  imparting  new 
impulses,  and  giving  and  receiving  new  strength. 
Every  elevation  and  every  dignity,  won  for  the  mass, 
gives  it  a  claim  to  higher  elevation  and  higher  dignity. 
Already  is  conceded  to  the  people  a  respect  and  a  po 
sition  which,  in  former  days,  would  not  have  been 
conceded  to  many  of  the  influential  and  exclusive 
classes.  As  the  advance  of  democracy  tends  to  the 
general  welfare  of  man,  and  as  this  welfare  is  founded 
in  virtue  alone,  no  human  power  can  rise  superior  to 
it,  and  it  must  finally  lead  to  the  establishment  of  laws 
and  usages  consistent  with  the  principles  of  virtue. 


SPIRIT    OF    DEMOCRACY. 


The  spirit  of  democracy  has  a  fitting  temple  in  the 
architecture  of  our  country;  and  while  contemplating 
our  mountain  ranges,  vast  rivers  with  their  teeming 
valleys,  our  ocean  lakes,  broad  and  fertile  prairies,  or 
listening  to  the  thunders  of  Niagara's  flood,  may  every 
member  of  the  republic  be  urged  to  make  our  coun 
try's  noble  architecture,  the  type  of  its  future  moral 
and  political  destiny. 


ON  THE  PRACTICAL  INFLUENCES 

OF 

POPULAR  INSTITUTIONS. 


LKC  TURK, 


ON  THE  PRACTICAL  INFLUENCES 

OF 

POPULAR   INSTIUTIONS. 

A   LECTURE 

WRITTEN"  FOR  THK  IKYING  LITER  All  V  IXSTITUTF.,  OF  ERIE,  PA. 


GENTLEMEN  OF  THE  IRVING  INSTITUTE: 

I  owe  yon  an  apology  fur  riot  rendering  an  earlier 
reply  to  the  invitation  with  which  you  have  honored 

me,  to  deliver  a  lecture  before  your  Association.  The 
delay  has  arisen  from  a  wish  to  render  myself  useful 
to  you  in  some  way,  should  I  he  compelled  to  decline 
that  pointed  out  by  yourselves. 

It  was  with  much  pleasure  that  1  learned,  soon 
after  my  arrival  in  your  town,  that  such  an  institution 
as  yours  was  in  existence,  affording  to  the  young  men 
of  the  place  a  stimulus  to  mental  exertion  and  im 
provement;  a  theater  and  material  for  intellectual 
recreation,  and  a  refuge  from  the  worse  than  profitless 
employments,  through  which  the  activities  of  our 


38  POPULAR    INSTITUTIONS. 


nature  will  run  riot,  and  retaliate  for  any  neglect  of 
their  proper  direction. 

I  do  not  intrude  upon  you  my  opinions  respecting 
your  Association,  from  an  assumption  that  they  have 
any  special  value  or  claim  to  your  attention.  The 
impulses  which  have  called  you  together — the  literary 
pursuits  in  which  you  are  engaged,  give  assurance  that 
you  are  incited  by  refined  tastes,  and  governed  by 
obligations  which  make  you,  to  some  extent,  independ 
ent  of  the  approbation  of  individuals;  even  of  those 
not  so  humble  as  myself.  But  every  citizen  who 
properly  values  the  institutions  of  our  Republic  must 
rejoice,  and  has  a  right  to  express  his  gratification  at 
anything  which  tends  to  sustain  and  to  advance  those 
institutions.  Their  continued  success  and  future  ad 
vancement  depend  so  much  upon  the  direction  given 
to  the  energies  and  faculties  of  our  young  men,  that 
it  becomes  a  source  of  the  highest  gratification  to  see 
any  of  them  acting  up  to  a  sense  of  their  responsi 
bilities,  by  the  aid  of  such  associations  as  that  you 
have  organized;  and  I  am  invited  by  the  reflections 

O  J 

it  has  suggested,  to  address  you  this  letter  upon  -on 


POPULAR     INSTITUTIONS.  39 


of  the  practical  influences  of  popular  institutions;  our 
obligations  to  them ;  and  the  dangers  to  which  they 
are  exposed. 

It  may  not  be  an  unwarrantable  egotism,  to  say 
that  my  remarks  are  not  altogether  the  result  of  closet 
theories,  but  are  drawn  from  opportunities  of  practical 
observation  of  society  as  it  exists  under  various  grades 
and  manners  of  organization.  It  has  been  my  lot  to 
mingle  in  close  association  with  my  fellow- man,  as  he 
appears  amid  the  simple  wants,  untutored  passions, 
and  insulated  independence  of  barbarism;  to  have 
seen  him  awkwardly  moving  in  the  restraints  of  a 
new  civilization;  to  have  dwelt  with  him  in  the  loo- 

O 

cabins  of  our  western  forests  and  prairies,  where,  in 
the  pride  of  self-reliance  and  local  independence,  he 
felt  the  dignity  of  his  union  with  a  grand  and  widely- 
extended  social  system;  displaying  faculties  educated 
and  strengthened  by  influences  independent  of  scho 
lastic  acquirements  and  unvarnished  by  the  polish  of 
refinement.  Again,  I  have  seen  him  with  his  whole 
nature  hidden  beneath  the  artificial  splendor  of  con 
ventional  usages;  arid  from  this  experience  I  have 


40  POPULAR    INSTITUTIONS. 

learned  that  there  is  much  to  respect  where  the  adven 
titious  aid  of  ornament  is  wanting,  and  much  to  regret 
and  deplore  amid  its  most  improving  splendor.  It 
has  taught  me  to  be  thankful  that  this  is  "  my  own, 
my  native  land,"  and  to  place  a  jealous  value  upon  its 
institutions. 

The  utility  and  consequent  success  of  popular  gov 
ernment  depend  so  much  upon  the  culture  and  self- 
government  of  each  of  its  members,  that  the  youth  of 
our  country  have  their  individual  obligations  extend 
ing  to  a  much  wider  range  than  that  of  their  personal 
success.  Each  can  say,  the  "  state  !  't  is  I ;  "  for  each  is 
the  state  in  epitome,  and  his  cultivation  is  that  of  the 
state.  As  every  member  of  an  oligarchy  is  bound  to 
the  interests  of  his  class,  so  in  our  country  we  are 
bound  to  those  broad  principles  which,  repudiating 
the  limited  interests  and  exclusive  rights  of  aristocracy, 
go  to  show  that  the  great  and  good  lies  sown  broad 
cast  among  the  people,  to  spring  up  in  a  wide-spread 
and  useful  harvest.  Such  obligations  may  involve 
more  active  duties  than  are  at  first  apparent.  It  is  not 
enough,  that  we  live  quietly  under  our  institutions, 


POPULAR    INSTITUTIONS.  41 


and  give  them  the  acquiescence  of  tacit  enjoyment. 
In  the  words  of  a  poetical  philosopher — 

"  Of  him  on  whom  the  riches  were  bestowed 
Of  liberty,  the  rays  of  streaming  light 
Will  be  required ;  liberty  demands 
Intense  exertion.     Stolid  despotism 
Can  rest  unmoved  like  inorganic  stuff, 
And  yet  may  last  a  time  ;  not  freedom  so. 
Freedom  is  like  organic  life,  suspended 
Between  the  two  unalterable  points — 
Unceasing  action  or  a  putrid  death. 
The,  terms  of  earnest  freedom  are  not  light ; 
For  freedom  is  but  plenitude  of  light, 
And  every  honest  right  a  hugging  twin 
Of  obligation— they  were  born  together  ; 
They  are  like  woof  and  warp  of  choicest  web, 
A  scurril  rag,  if  one  be  ravelled  out. 
The  gospel  of  stout  civil  liberty 
Is  like  the  enfranchisement  of  Christian  souls, 
Imposing  greatest  tasks  of  right  and  truth. 
But  freedom,  too — man's  healthiest  existence, 
Is  like  the  joyous  life  of  sylvan  tribe. 
Each  tree,  each  vine — they  hide  their  laws  of  growth  ; 
They  spread.,  entwine,  and  struggle  toward  the  light ; 


42  POPULAR    INSTITUTIONS. 


The  vernal  ray  infuses  wak'ning  warmth, 
And  life  pervades  Hie  whole  community." 

Inaction  would  be  culpable,  were  there  no  opposing 
principles  to  be  encountered  and  contended  with;  but 
unfortunately  there  is  no  such  unanimity,  and  while 
we  know  that  much  of  the  world  is  arrayed  against 
us,  both  in  sentiment  and  political  organization,  there 
is  too  much  evidence  that  in  our  midst  there  are  two 
classes  hostile  to  the  existing  arrangement  of  our  polit 
ical  system.  One  which  regards  with  admiration  and 
favor  the  splendors  of  aristocracy,  and  another  which 
would  level  all  to  barbarian  rudeness,  and  loosen  the 
bonds  which  hold  in  check  the  wildest  passions  of  our 
nature. 

In  the  various  grades  of  human  intellect,  there  are 
undoubtedly  feeble  minds  which  bowr  before  the  cir 
cumstance  of  aristocratic  pomp,  or  11  utter  around  the 
tinsel  which  glitters  over  its  principles  and  conceal 
their  enormous  pretension — pretension  to  separate 
men  into  ranks  and  stations,  without  respect  to  the 
claims  of  talent  and  virtue;  principles  which  make 
plebeian  the  intelligent  mechanic,  the  engineer,  the 


POPULAR    INSTITUTIONS.  43 


architect,  the  painter,  the  poet — those  whose  minds 
are  the  thrones  of  intellect,  and  whose  hands  are  the 
instruments  of  skillful  genius;  while  he  may  be  patri 
cian,  whose  occupation  and  ambition  are  to  fill  the 
various  degrees  which  range  between  the  bully  of  the 
pugilistic  ring  and  the  enervated  lounger  of  a  fash 
ionable  drawing-room.  In  addition  to  those  who, 
from  mental  organization,  may  be  the  admirers  of  the 
splendors  of  aristocracy,  it  can  not  be  questioned  that 
many  who  have  successfully  achieved  the  high  posi 
tion  which  is  consequent  upon  fame  and  fortune,  not 
satisfied  with  the  influence  justly  earned  by  them, 
sigh  after  the  exclusive  privileges  enjoyed  by  those  on 
the  top  round  of  the  social  ladder,  in  countries  of 
political  organization  different  from  our  own.  They 
look  with  distaste  upon  the  institutions,  through  the 
protection  of  which  they  have  made  their  own  ascent, 
because  they  can  not  enroll  their  blood  in  a  higher 
register  than  that  of  the  humble  masses  from  which 
they  sprung.  There  are  many  influences  encouraging 
these  tendencies,  and  disseminating  erroneous  impres 
sions.  Notwithstanding  the  great  lessons  taught  by 


44  POPULAR    INSTITUTIONS. 

our  Republic,  since  its  formation,  in  regard  to  the  true 
dignity  of  man,  few  of  us  are  educated  out  of  the  fic 
tions  and  prejudices  handed  down  from  the  ages  of 
feudality,  arid  still  embodied  in  the  political  systems 
of  great  nations.  Not  only  romance  and  poetry  lend 
their  fascinating  powers  to  the  same  errors,  but  most 
of  the  works  put  in  the  hands  of  youth,  as  unexcep 
tionable  history,  deepen  and  extend  the  false  impres 
sion,  until  it  becomes  difficult  to  estimate  man  ab 
stracted  from  the  "guinea  stamp"  of  rank,  or  to 
conceive  that  all  the  qualities  and  sensibilities  of  a  hero 
may  be  found  in  the  hearts  and  heads  of  those  en 
gaged  in  what  are  called  the  humble  pursuits  of  life. 
Society  will,  of  course,  form  itself  into  cliques  and 
associations,  according  to  the  tastes  and  sympathies  of 
those  so  associating;  and  as  we  all,  in  the  various 
occupations  of  life,  exhibit  this  social  disposition,  it 
must  be  conceded  even  to  those  who  are  bound  by  a 
common  folly,  and  who  unite  for  the  purposes  of 
fashionable  frivolity.  But  the  popular  judgment  will 
claim  to  establish  the  standard  of  what  is  best;  and 
what  was  best  under  other  institutions,  and  in  past 


POPULAR    INSTITUTIONS.  45 

ages,  ceases  to  be  so  now ;  last  of  all  will  it  be  con 
ceded  in  an  utilitarian  age,  and  to  the  votaries  of  folly 
and  fashion.  And  any  such  claim  may  be  looked 
down  upon  with  contempt  by  all  engaged  in  the  truly 
noble  pursuits  of  usefulness. 

It  is  to  be  deplored,  that  men  do  not  always  rest 
satisfied  in  the  dignity  which  should  emanate  from 
the  consciousness  of  being  useful ;  but,  by  manifest 
ing  envy  and  jealousy  toward  the  pretensions  of 
self- constituted  exclusives,  they  in  some  measure  ac 
knowledge  the  importance  of  those  pretensions,  and 
pay  tribute  to  them,  by  making  an  unworthy  confes 
sion  of  inferiority.  These  are  the  feelings  which 
beget  the  levelers  arid  disorganizes  of  society,  and  it 
is  important  to  be  shown  that  such  feelings  are  hostile 
to  our  institutions,  and  consequently  hostile  to  popular 
rights. 

Experience  and  observation  teach  that  the  inclina 
tions  and  desires  of  the  human  heart,  when  inordinate 
in  power  or  irregular  in  direction,  obey  a  law  of  re 
tributive  justice,  and  while  they  punish  the  individual 
manifesting  them,  even  in  the  reward  of  success,  they 


46  POPULA.Il    INSTITUTIONS. 


make  his  punishment  tributary  to  the  common  good. 
Contemplate,  for  a  moment,  the  inordinate  desire  for 
wealth.  He  who  is  cursed  with  this  lowest  of  pas 
sions  toils  on  and  on ;  denies  himself  the  legitimate 
enjoyments  of  life.  Blinded  to  the  beauties  and  har 
monies  of  nature  and  art,  he  loses  the  pleasure  of 
their  contemplation.  Too  often,  the  well-springs  of 
joy,  which  should  flow  in  streams  of  human  affec 
tion,  are  dried  at  their  source,  and  a  life  of  avarice 
becomes  a  path  in  a  moral  desert,  while  the  promised 
joy  is  a  flying  phantom,  ever  beyond  the  unreachable 
more.  Thus  it  is  with  the  individual.  But  what  is 
the  effect  upon  the  community  ?  The  whole  man — 
energies  of  soul,  of  mind,  and  body,  have  been  coined 
into  public  wealth.  New  sources  of  wealth  have  been 
opened  under  the  individual  desire,  arts  originated, 
manufactories  instituted,  and  mines,  forests,  and  seas 
explored.  In  like  manner,  the  same  wise  law  makes 
the  follies,  extravagances,  and  vices  of  those  who  have 
accumulated  the  stores  of  society,  tributary  to  industry, 
energy,  and  integrity,  by  again  distributing  among 
the  people  the  wealth  which  these  latter  qualities  had 


F  O  P  U  L  A  R     I  N  S  T  I  T  U  T  1  O  N  S  .  47 


gathered  together.  Thus  the  beauty,  harmony,  and 
adaptation  of  our  institutions  are  vindicated,  and  the 
individuals  composing  the  various  classes  of  society 
made  interchangeable,  according  to  their  capabilities ; 
and  the  causes  for  class  hostility,  envy,  and  jealousy, 
are  removed  or  done  away  with.  It  is  a  disregard  of 
these  laws,  the  confounding  of  political  with  social 
equality,  which  has  been  among  the  errors  of  French 
republicanism,  and  is  the  error  of  socialism.  It  is 
unjust  to  human  nature,  to  legislate  an  equality  of 
wealth,  or  a  conformity  of  manners,  irrespective  of 
merit  and  tastes,  as  endow  by  law  organized  aristocra 
cies  with  exclusive  privileges.  Every  attempt  at  this 
forced  equalization  gives  facility  to  the  sophistical 
deductions  of  the  advocate  for  exclusive  privileges; 
when  he  tells  you,  in  support  of  his  views,  that  nature 
points  to  such  an  arrangement,  because  men  are  born 
unequal  in  physical  and  mental  powers;  and  when 
he  claims  for  man  the  same  hereditary  law  of  pure 
blood  which  is  so  carefully  respected  in  unreasoning 
animals.  These  laws  of  inequality,  and  hereditary 
transmission,  none  can  deny;  but  we  can  use  them 


48  POPULAR  INSTITUTIONS. 


against  both  aristocrat  and  socialist.  We  claim  that 
each  individual  be  left  free  and  untrararaeled,  to 
achieve  the  position  to  which  this  inequality  resigns 
him;  and  in  regard  to  the  law  of  hereditary  trans 
mission  of  qualities,  we  demand  the  evidence  to  show 
that  the  good  and  the  bad  are  necessarily  limited  to 
particular  stations  in  life.  The  physiological  his 
tory  of  man,  teaches  that  prominent  qualities  of 
mind  and  body  may  lie  dormant  for  several  gen 
erations,  and  then  appear  in  their  original  force  in 
the  same  line  of  blood.  It  is  apparent,  then,  that 
during  this  sleep  of  ennobling  powers,  families  may 
sink  to  the  humblest  stations;  and  from  these  stations, 
then,  the  sun  of  genius  may  arise,  to  dazzle  the  world 
with  a  splendor  in  brilliant  contrast  with  the  clouds 
of  obscurity  from  which  it  has  burst. 

The  socialist  and  the  aristocrat  are  alike  the  ene 
mies  of  human  progress  and  efficient  freedom.  The 
socialist  takes  from  man,  by  diffusion,  the  property  in 
and  responsibility  for  himself,  and  impedes  advancement 
by  paralyzing  energy.  The  aristocrat  produces  the 
same  result  by  monopolies,  which  leave  nothing  for 


POPULAR     INSTITUTIONS.  49 

the  privileged  to  gain,  and  but  little  for  the  excluded 
to  hope  for.  Individualism — a  close,  responsible  indi 
vidualism  is  the  spirit  of  progress  and  soul  of  freedom. 

At  this  present  moment,  some  poor  artisan,  anxious 
to  escape  from  the  oppression  of  poverty,  and  the  hu 
mility  of  obscurity,  robs  nature  of  food  and  rest,  in  the 
study  of  some  new  combination  of  mechanical  powers, 
which  is  to  contribute  to  the  comfort  and  enjoyment 
of  his  fellows;  but  the  rewards  of  fame  and  fortune 
are  to  be  his  own. 

Some  lawyer,  just  entering  upon  his  profession  in 
an  obscure  village  withdrawn  from  the  seductive  plea 
sures  of  society,  is  studying,  working,  drudging  in  the 
loneliness  of  his  office;  concentrating  the  powers  of 
his  intellect  upon  a  case  which  is  to  elicit  and  establish 
principles  most  interesting  to  the  community.  His 
mind  is  to  deduce  them,  the  radiations  are  to  go  from 
him,  and,  perhaps,  flash  far  beyond  the  limited  locality 
of  his  residence.  He  works  with  the  eyes  of  the  world 
upon  him.  A  physician  in  the  silent  watches  of  the 
night,  is  deep  buried  in  his  study,  enthusiastically 
engaged  in  the  contemplation  of  some  disease,  or 
3 


50  POPULAR     INSTITUTIONS. 


specimen  of  disease,  externally  most  disgusting,  but  to 
him  it  speaks  in  clear  and  beautiful  language,  silently 
written  by  the  finger  of  the  Almighty,  and  tells  of 
laws  and  actions  over  which  his  mind  expands  itself  in 
boundless  enjoyment :  he  feels  impatient  to  invite  the 
world  to  share  his  pleasure.  His  own  mind  is  then  a 
kingdom  embracing  the  welfare  of  the  whole  human 
family. 

Such  is  individualism  acting  under  the  guaranty  of 
free  institutions,  and  bearing  the  torch  of  Hope  along 
its  path. 

We  will  now  give  some  attention  to  the  influence  of 
individualism,  and  to  the  bearing  of  our  institutions  up 
on  that  virtue  which  "  covereth  a  multitude  of  sins" — 
Charity — and  the  word  is  used  in  its  limited  application 
to  the  relief  of  the  sufferings  of  our  fellow-creatures. 

Some  years  ago,  circumstances  threw  me  into  con 
stant  and  intimate  association  with  an  intelligent  and 
educated  foreigner,  resident  in  our  country.  Upon 
one  occasion,  a  wondering  and  commiserating  crowd 
was  gathered  around  a  poor  wretch  writhing  in  the 
convulsions  of  epilepsy.  My  companion  came  at 


POPULAR     INSTITUTIONS,  51 

once  to  the  conclusion,  that  it  was  only  a  feigned  ap 
peal  to  public  sympathy,  and  acting  upon  this  convic 
tion,  he  pushed  his  way  through  the  crowd,  pinched 
up  a  fold  of  skin  upon  the  neck  of  the  convulsed  per 
son,  and  thrust  through  it  the  blade  of  a  sharp  knife. 
The  victim  of  this  barbarous  test  proved  to  be  a  genu 
ine  epileptic.  At  another  time,  a  well  fingered  written 
petition  was  presented  my  companion  by  a  tottering 
old  man  —  a  revolutionary  relic,  "  Whose  trembling 
limbs  had  borne  him  to  our  door."  My  friend  called 
a  boy,  who  happened  to  be  near,  placed  the  old  man's 
petition  and  a  sixpence  in  the  boy's  hand,  and  directed 
him  to  deposit  the  paper  upon  the  opposite  pavement, 
and  to  keep  the  money  for  his  trouble.  Weak  and 
trembling  as  he  was,  I  was  glad  to  see  the  fire  of  '76 
sparkle  in  the  old  man's  eye,  as,  raising  his  cane,  he 
made  an  assault  upon  rny  companion,  threatening  a 
severe  chastisement  for  his  heartlessness. 

A  citizen  of  our  own  or  any  other  country,  might 
have  acted  just  as  this  person  did,  but  no  one  of  our 
countrymen  possessing  the  mental  and  moral  organ 
ization  of  the  individual  alluded  to,  would  have  done 


52  POPULAR     INSTITUTIONS. 

so.  The  acts  were  inconsistent  with  his  general  char 
acter;  hence  it  is  fair  to  infer  that  his  uncharitable 
feelings  were  attributable  to  the  circumstances  under 
which  his  character  had  been  formed,  and  I  think  it 
may  be  shown  that  such  an  effect  might  be  the  result 
of  certain  political  and  social  arrangements. 

Look,  for  instance,  at  a  country  which,  by  artificial 
arrangements,  such  as  the  laws  of  entail  and  primogen 
iture,  secures  a  small  portion  of  its  people  in  enormous 
wealth,  and  its  consequent  luxury  and  splendor.  This 
unequal  distribution  of  course  increases  the  chances  of 
poverty  and  distress  among  the  masses  and  multiplies 
the  subjects  of  charity.  The  favored  class  is  so  far 
removed  from  the  sufferings  of  those  who  are  not  pro 
tected,  that  their  common  humanity  is  almost  forgot 
ten  and  sympathy  is  deadened.  Permanent  wealth 
and  luxury  is  apt  to  induce  a  morbid  and  refined  sen 
sibility,  which  shrinks  from  contact  with  the  revolting 
misery  which  would  identify  the  common  humanity ; 
and  money  which  has  not  the  value  imparted  by  labo 
rious  acquisition,  is  often  distributed  to  purchase  an 
exemption  from  the  painful  exercise  of  an  active  and 


POPULAR     INSTITUTIONS.  53 

discriminating  charity;  and  tliis  easy  liberality  invites  to 
feigned  distress  and  imposture.  Suppose,  further,  that 
such  a  country,  to  meet  the  necessities  it  has  created, 
loads  the  industrial  classes  with  heavy  taxes  and  poor- 
rates.  With  the  fund  thus  accumulated,  let  large  and 
showy  edifices,  devoted  to  charitable  purposes,  be 
glared  in  the  public  eye.  Externally  this  will  appear 
a  people  of  splendid  charity ;  but  let  us  lift  the  vail 
and  see  what  heart  beats  beneath  it.  The  industrial 
classes  look  with  a  jealous  and  angry  eye  upon  the 
amount  forced  by  law  from  their  earnings.  They  look 
around  them  and  see  the  domes,  and  walls,  and 
grounds  of  the  splendid  establishments,  to  which  they 
are  bound  to  contribute,  and  in  which  are  maintained 
a  retinue  of  officials.  They  naturally  learn  to  consider 
poverty  as  a  legal  prey  upon  their  purse;  to  look 
upon  it  as  an  offense,  and  to  regard  every  case  of  des 
titution  as  of  the  same  factitious  character  as  those 
created  by  the-  indiscriminate  liberality  of  the  upper 
classes.  When  appeals  are  made  to  them,  the  reply 
is :  the  law  has  been  met.  Their  poor-rates  have  been 
paid,  and  the  sufferer  loo  often  is  turned  from  their 


54  POPULAR     INSTITUTIONS. 

door,  to  perish,  perhaps,  in  sight  of  these  institutions, 
which,  for  want  of  certain  formalities,  he  cannot  enter. 
Charity  having  thus  become  law  has  ceased  to  be 
feeling.  It  is  represented  by  the  magnificent  brick 
and  stone  walls,  and  like  the  cement  which  binds  them 
together,  it  has  indurated  into  more  than  marble  hard 
ness.  The  charity  of  law,  is  cold,  formal  and  routine. 
From  such  effects  as  these,  our  institutions  have  so  far 
preserved  us,  and  may  we  never  seek  to  loose  our  in 
dividual  obligations  in  a  boastful  display  of  public 
charities;  and  may  we  ever  bear  in  mind  that  our  pe 
cuniary  aid  may  be  a  barren  gift  unless  accompanied 
by  a  kind  and  cheering  spirit,  which  can  light  the 
gloom  of  despondency  and  tell  the  victims  of  want 
and  privation,  that  there  is  a  hope  of  life  and  happi 
ness  for  them  in  the  companionship  and  brotherhood 
of  humanity. 

Kindred  to  such  a  spirit  is  that  which  imparts  kind, 
courteous,  and  gentlemanly  deportment  to  our  inter 
course  with  each  other;  and  it  adds  no  small  consider 
ation  to  the  value  of  our  institutions,  and  to  the  obliga 
tions  we  owe  them,  if  they  contribute  to  the  diffusion 


POPULAR     INSTITUTIONS.  55 

and  equalization  of  refined  manners.  I  do  not  allude 
to  the  conventional  forms  and  masonic  rules  which  are 
necessary  to  establish  a  membership  with  exclusive 
classes  and  fashionable  circles,  those  Chesterfieldian 
arts  and  grimaces  which  have  been  not  inaptly  called 
the  manners  of  a  dancing-master  ingrafted  upon  the 
principles  of  a  scoundrel.  I  refer  to  those  natural  and 
spontaneous  graces  which  spring  from  benevolence  of 
heart,  Christian  charity,  and  from  the  external  influ 
ences,  teaching  the  self-respect  which  prevents  servility, 
and  the  appreciation  of  the  rights  of  others  which  for 
bids  arrogance.  The  respect  paid  by  mankind  to  refined 
manners,  is  as  natural  as  the  respect  paid  to  the  virtues 
of  which  the  manners  are  the  external  signs,  and  the 
sense  of  their  appreciation  is  similar  to  that  which  de 
rives  enjoyment  from  the  beauties  and  harmonies  of  na 
ture  and  art.  Therefore,  those  who  affect  a  coarse,  rude, 
and  offensive  deportment,  under  the  idea  that  it  indicates 
honesty  and  sincerity  of  character,  violate  the  natural 
common  sense  and  good  taste  of  their  fellow-men,  and 
with  such  endorsers,  the  claim  to  honesty  may  be  con 
sidered  counterfeit.  The  Bible,  adapted  by  Divine 


56  POPULAR     INSTITUTIONS. 

wisdom  to  all  the  circumstances  of  life,  offers  the  best 
rules^and  strongest  injunctions  of  gentlemanly  deport 
ment.  In  a  curious  book  by  De  Foe,  called  "LRe- 
ligious  Courtship,"  a  conversation  is  carried  on  between 
a  pious  sister,  and  her  irreligious  brother.  I  quote 
the  following  remarks'of  the  sister: 

"  Let  the  scripture  be  judge,  whether  the  rules  of 
life  dictated  by  the  apostles  to  the  Christian  churches, 
were  not  such,  as  not  only  agree  well  with  that  of  a 
gentleman,  but  indeed  with  that  without  which  no 
man  can  be  a  gentleman;  if  you  look  almost  through 
the  epistles  in  the  New  Testament,  you  will  find  it  so ; 
I'll  name  you  a  few : 

Phil.  i.  9,  10.  That  your  love  may  abound  in 
knowledge  and  all  judgment.  There's  wisdom  and 
learning. 

That  you  may  approve  things  that  are  excellent. 
There's  solid  judgment. 

That  ye  may  le  sincere  and  without  offence.  There 
is  the  honesty  and  open-hearted  ness  of  a  true  gentle 
man. 

1  Peter,  iii.  8.      Love  as  brethren,  le  pitiful,  le 


POPULAR     INSTITUTIONS. 


courteous.  There  is  the  charity,  the  beneficence,  and 
the  good-breeding  of  a  gentleman. 

Col.  iii.  12.  Put  on  bowels  of  mercy,  kindness, 
humbleness  of  mind,  meekness,  d-c.  Who  can  be  a 
gentleman  without  these? 

Col.  iv.  8.  Whatsoever  things  are  honest,  just, 
pure,  lovely,  and  of  good  report,  thinlc  of  these  things. 
What  think  you  now?  Can  the  practice  of  these 
things  dishonor  a  gentleman  ?  or  do  they  honor  and 
illustrate,  and  indeed  make  a  gentleman  ? 

In  lowliness  of  mind  let  each  esteem  others  letter 
than  themselves.  What  becomes  a  gentleman  more 
than  such  humility  ?  I  could  name  you  many  others. 
Will  any  man  that  needs  these  rules  say  they  are  not 
suitable  to  a  gentleman  ?  No,  brother,  it  shall  ever  be 
a  rule  to  me,  that  the  only  complete  man  on  earth  is 
a  religious  gentleman."  Manners  such  as  these  pre 
cepts  teach,  need  not  be  limited  to  any  station  or  oc 
cupation  in  life,  and  it  is  the  tendency  of  our  institu 
tions  to  diifuse  them  throughout  society.  Where  men 
are  fixed  in  their  positions  by  birth  and  occupation, 
and  no  change  in  their  general  relations  is  dependent 
3* 


58  POPULAR    INSTITUTIONS. 

upon  their  deportment,  there  is,  of  course,  but  little,  if 
any  inducement  for  those  in  humble  occupations  to 
refine  their  manners;  but  where,  as  in  our  country, 
every  one  possessed  of  the  characteristics  has  a  right 
to  call  himself  a  gentleman,  courteous  and  gentlemanly 
demeanor  is  found  to"t)'e  of  more  general  existence, 
and  foreigners  are  compelled  to  express  their  admira 
tion  of  the  tone  and  bearing  which  mark  among  us 
those  engaged  in  pursuits  which,  with  them,  would  be 
associated  with  rudeness  and  vulgarity.  We  may  re 
joice  that  such  are  the  humanizing  influences  of  our  in 
stitutions,  for  were  their  effect  upon  the  general  manner 
of  those  living  under  them,  of  an  opposite  character, 
as  is  alledged  by  the  advocates  of  aristocracy,  we 
might  be  tempted  to  adopt  the  language  and  senti 
ments  of  Hazlitt,  when  he  says :  "  I  cannot  describe 
the  contempt  and  disgust  I  have  felt  at  the  tone  of 
what  would  be  thought  good  company,  when  I  have 
witnessed  the  sleek,  smiling,  glossy,  gratuitous  assump 
tion  of  superiority  to  every  feeling  of  humanity,  hon 
esty,  or  principle,  making  part  of  the  etiquette,  the 
mental  and  moral  costume  of  the  table,  and  every 


P  U  L  A  K     INS  T  1  T  U  Tl  O  N  S  .  59 


profession  of  toleration  for  the  lower  orders,  that  is,  for 
tlie  great  mass  of  our  fellow-creatures,  treated  as  indeco 
rum,  and  breach  of  the  harmony  of  well-regulated  so 
ciety.  In  short,  I  prefer  a  bear-garden  to  the  adder's 
den." 

In  addition  to  the  hostility  which  our  institutions 
have  to  encounter  from  the  domestic  treachery  of 
those  whom  the  favors  of  fortune  have  seduced  into 
the  belief  that  they  are  worthy  of  exclusive  privileges, 
and  of  those  who  by  a  system  of  forced  leveling  would 
deprive  man  of  his  natural  rights,  popular  government 
is  exposed  to  the  assaults  made  upon  it  by  the  pens  of 
able,  systematic,  and  interested  advocates  of  opposing 
modes  of  government,  and  in  this  contest  of  varied 
forces  it  falls  to  our  young  men  to  array  themselves 
into  an  army  of  moral  influences,  which  shall  bear  on, 
and  on,  the  banner  of  enlightened  freedom,  until  it 
floats  triumphant  over  class  privileges,  and  leaves  them 
a  ruin  for  the  wondering  contemplation  of  the  political 
antiquary. 

The  August  number,  for  the  present  year,  of  the 
popular  and  extensively  read  Blackwood's  Edinburgh 


60  POPULAR    INSTITUTIONS. 

Magazine,  contains  an  eloquent  review  of  Lamartine's 
Revolution  of  1848,  in  which  the  writer  brings  all  his 
powers,  of  ridicule  and  argument,  to  bear  against  both 
the  theory  and  practice  of  republican  government.  It 
may,  perhaps,  appear  presumptuous  in  me  to  contro 
vert  the  opinions  of  a  writer  for  a  periodical  of  such 
established  reputation  and  influence  as  Blackwood, 
and  I  am  only  tempted  to  do  so  by  a  conviction  of 
the  truth  and  strength  of  ray  cause  which  renders  it 
independent  of  the  deficient  skill  and  ability  of  its 
advocate. 

False  argument  and  erroneous  opinions,  sometimes 
gain  force  and  currency  when  placed  in  connection 
with  or  behind  prominent  and  generally  acknowledged 
truths.  When  alluding  to  the  causes  which  unfit  the 
French,  particularly,  for  popular  institutions,  and  give 
that  people  a  tendency  to  turbulence  and  revolution, 
the  reviewer  says:  "The  irreligion,  or  rather  general 
oblivion  of  religion  which  commonly  prevails  in  the 
towns,  is  a  part,  though  doubtless  a  most  important 
part,  of  this  universal  disposition.  Christianity  is  ab 
jured  or  forgotten,  not  because  it  is  disbelieved,  but 


1'  U  P  U  L  A  K     1  M  ti  T  i  1'  U  T  I  O  >.  ,S  .  O  I 

because  it  is  disagreeable.  Men  do  not  give  them 
selves  the  trouble  to  inquire  whether  it  is  true  or  false; 
they  simply  give  it  the  go-by,  and  pass  quietly  on  the 
other  side,  because  it  imposes  a  restraint,  to  them  in 
supportable,  on  their  passions.  Dispositions  of  this 
sort  are  the  true  feeders  of  revolution,  because  they 
generate  at  once  its  convulsions  in  like  manner  as  pas 
sions  which  require  gratification,  poverty  which  de 
mands  food,  and  activity  which  pines  for  employment." 
The  sentiments  above  quoted  claim  our  assent  and  win 
our  approbation.  The  restraints  of  religion  and  the 
searching  self-discipline  of  Christianity  are  essential  to 
the  success  of  popular  institutions.  So  closely  are  they 
associated,  that  it  may  be  questioned  whether  the  one 
will  not  lead  to  the  other — whether  the'  establishment 
of  popular  rights  has  not  gone  hand-in-hand  with  the 
spread  of  pure  and  unadulterated  Christianity;  and 
whether  the  continued  existence  of  popular  govern 
ment  does  not  facilitate  the  spread  of  those  Christian 
principles  upon  which  it  so  essentially  depends.  It  is 
most  certain  that  the  irreligion  and  immorality  alluded 
to  by  the  reviewer  were  the  growth  of  the  corrupting 


POPULAR    INSTITUTIONS. 


influence  of  despotic  and  aristocratic  institutions.  He 
substitutes  effects  and  their  results  for  primary  causes. 
In  another  place  the  reviewer  tells  his  readers  that 
"  self-government  is  the  dream  of  the  enthusiast,  the 
vision  of  the  inexperienced  ;  oligarchy  is  the  history  of 
man.  In  vain  are  institutions  popularized,  nobles  de 
stroyed,  masses  elevated,  education  diffused,  self-gov 
ernment  established  :  all  that  will  not  alter  the  char 
acter  of  man  ;  it  will  not  qualify  the  multitude  for 
self-direction  —  it  will  not  obviate  that  first  of  necessi 
ties  to  mankind  —  the  necessity  of  being  governed. 
What  is  the  first  act  of  every  assembly  of  men  associ 
ated  together  for  any  purpose,  social,  political  or  chari 
table?  To  nominate  a  committee  by  whom  the 
common  affairs  are  to  be  regulated.  What  is  the  first 
act  of  that  committee  ?  To  nominate  a  sub-committee 
of  two  or  three,  in  whom  the  direction  of  affairs  is 
practically  vested."  This  language  of  the  reviewer, 
uttered  in  the  bold  confidence  of  wrong,  falls  with  the 
impress  of  surprise  and  astonishment  upon  our  ears. 
But  it  is  well  for  us  to  know  that  such  sentiments  are 
promulgated  and  read,  and  believed  by  thousands, 


!•  O  P  U  L  A  K    I  N  rf  T  i  T  f  T  1  O  N  S  .  (j  3 


notwithstanding  their  glaring  sophistry,  and  that  their 
contradiction  lies  written  over  the  vast  surface  of  out- 
republic,  in  all  the  eloquence  of  its  achievements  in 
arts  and  arms — in  statesmanship  and  diplomacy  —  in 
the  production  of  the  individually  great,  and  in  the 
diffusion  of  morals  and  religion,  prosperity  and  general 
happiness.  This  very  disposition  to  nominate  a  few 
to  manage  the  affairs  of  all,  so  sneeringly  alluded  to, 
constitutes  the  security,  efficiency  and  superiority  of 
self-government.  The  convocation  of  all  gives  to  each 
an  individual  interest  and  responsibility  in  what  is  go 
ing  on,  his  faculties  are  quickened  and  his  judgment 
strengthened.  The  few  selected,  are  chosen  from  all 
for  superior  capacity,  or  facilities  for  managing  the 
business  in  hand,  and  their  efficient  action  is  secured 
in  the  highest  sense  of  individual  responsibility — the 
agents  are  not  independent  of  those  who  call  them  in 
to  existence.  But  let  the  chief  agents  in  the  business 
of  society,  and  the  right  to  high  station  be  designated 
by  the  accident  of  birth,  and  social  and  political  inter 
ests  may,  as  they  have,  fall  into  the  management  of 
imbecile  idiocy;  —  the  dispensation  of  charity,  to  the 


04  POPULAR     INSTITUTIONS. 

cold  and  selfish,  and  the  affairs  of  religion  to  the  pro 
fane  and  licentious. 

The  selection  of  public  men  by  the  popular  voice, 
gives  the  guarantee  of  self-interest  that  better  men 
shall  be  chosen  than  if  the  decision  is  by  chance.  It 
is  well  known  that  those  destitute  of  principle  them 
selves,  respect  it  in  others,  and  even  an  assemblage  of 
bad  men,  obliged  to  trust  their  interests  to  a  few  or 
one  of  their  number,  will  naturally  select  those  in 
whom  they  can  most  confide ;  and  in  the  characters 
of  mixed  good  and  evil  which  constitute  society,  the 
aggregate  judgment  must  fall  upon  the  principle  of 
goodness  and  capacity,  as  that  only  in  which  they  can 
have  a  common  faith.  The  judgment  of  men  may 
sometimes  be  erroneous  as  to  the  individuals  selected 
by  them,  but  the  disposition  and  the  interest  is  to 
choose  the  best.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  laws  of 
nature  gives  the  security  for  correct  judgment  and 
points  out  popular  government  as  that  best  adapted  to 
man.  However  humble  may  appear  the  intellectual 
endowments  of  the  individuals  of  the  mass,  compared 
to  the  exceptional  possessors  of  great  genius  and 


POPULAR     INSTITUTIONS.  C5 


intellectual  power,  it  is  only  the  common  sense  of  the 
aggregate  mass  which  can  correctly  determine  the 
questions  relating  to  the  interests  of  mankind.  Guizot, 
in  his  history  of  civilization,  tells  us  that  "  It  is  com 
mon  sense  which  gives  to  words  their  proper  significa 
tion,  and  common  sense  is  the  Genius  of  Humanity." 
In  the  essay  of  Beattie  on  Truth,  it  is  said  that  "com 
mon  sense  or  instinct,  which  prompts  men  to  trust  to 
their  own  feelings,  hath  in  all  ages  continued  the 
same ;  but  the  interests,  pursuits,  and  abilities  of  phi 
losophers  are  susceptible  of  endless  variety,  and  their 
theories  vary  accordingly." 

The  facts  which  have  been  laid  before  you  in  this 
letter,  and  the  great  law  to  which  allusion  has  been 
made,  show  conclusively,  the  bold  ignorance  of  the 
Blackwood  essayist;  and  they  prove  not  only  that 
man  is  capable  of  self-government  which  offers  a 
security  against  the  imperfections  of  human  nature. 
So  progressive  have  been  its  influences,  that  from  ob 
servation  of  the  past,  there  is  reason  to  hope  for  the 
breaking  down  of  all  old  prejudices  and  external  dis 
guises,  until  moral  greatness  becomes  the  principle  of 


CO  POPULAR     INSTITUTIONS. 

distinction  among  men.  An  eloquent  and  philosophic 
writer  of  our  own  country  has  these  words:  "Hitherto 
the  world  has  seen  only  aristocracies;  moral  greatness 
is  the  truly  republican  condition  of  society.  A  more 
than  human  teacher  has  declared,  "  In  my  Father's 
house  are  many  mansions,"  yea,  an  open  and  honored 
place  for  all  that  enter  in.  It  is  a  civilization  founded 
on  moral  culture,  on  the  life  of  the  affections,  that 
must  yet  be  the  great  leveling  principle  in  human 
society,  equalizing  all  conditions  of  life,  ennobling  all 
lawful  avocations,  encircling  with  its  zone  of  kindest 
sympathies,  the  loftiest  and  the  lowliest  dwellings. 

There  is  hope  for  the  speedy  advent  of  this  millen 
nial  condition  of  society,  in  the  fact  that  the  several 
principles  of  greatness  that  have  been  reversed  in  suc 
cessive  ages,  have  supplanted  one  another,  each  with 
more  rapid  footsteps  than  the  preceding.  For  the 
first  half  of  the  world's  history,  we  trace  no  higher 
principle  than  brute  force.  The  ascendency  of  the 
military  spirit  makes  the  next  two  thousand  years. 
But  the  reverence  of  birth,  of  wealth,  of  intellect,  have 
succeeded  each  other  by  much  shorter  intervals;  and 


POPULAR     INSTITUTIONS.  67 

moral  greatness  is  even  now,  we  trust,  winning  the 
ascendency. 

Christian  benevolence  already  belts  the  globe.  Art 
lends  its  fire-wings ;  science  its  eagle  vision ;  wisdom 
its  age  gathered.  We  will  hope,  then,  that  an  early 
posterity  may  witness  the  entire  supremacy  of  faith, 
truth,  and  love. 

Gentlemen  of  the  Irving  Literary  Institute,  having 
made  use  of  your  Association  as  the  text  for  the  fore 
going  reflections,  I  shall  bo  most  happy  if  they  prove 
in  any  way  useful  to  you. 


POPULAK  EDUCATION. 


A    REPORT 

TO    THE    EDUCATIONAL    SOCIETY    OF   EKIE    COUNTY,   PA. 


POPULAR   EDUCATION. 


It  would  seem  to  be  almost  unnecessary,  at  this 
time  and  in  this  country,  to  say  anything  upon  the 
importance  and  the  necessity  of  general  education. 
But,  unfortunately,  while  all  give  a  formal  assent  to 
its  value,  there  is  too  much  reason  to  fear  that  the 
public  mind  is  not  so  deeply  and  so  earnestly  im 
pressed  with  the  worth  of  education  as  the  general 
verbal  admission  would  imply.  Few  individuals  be 
come  workers  in  the  cause  of  education  proportioned 
to  their  acknowledgment  of  its  value,  or  in  any  degree 
proportioned  to  its  influence  upon  the  interests  of 
every  member  of  the  community. 

This  prevailing  apathy  and  indifference  could  not 
exist,  were  the  true  nature  of  education  fully  under 
stood,  and  its  whole  influence  upon  individual  pros 
perity  and  happiness  correctly  appreciated;  were  it 


72  POPULAR     EDUCATION. 

seen  to  be  an  elevating  power,  and  an  element  of  suc 
cess,  not  only  to  the  man  of  literary  and  scientific 
pursuits,  but  to  the  laborer  and  mechanic.  It  shall 
be  the  endeavor  of  this  report,  briefly  to  set  forth  the 
nature  and  importance  of  general  education,  and  its 
relations  to  individual  and  national  prosperity  and 
happiness.  The  object  of  education  is  "  to  develop  in 
each  individual  all  the  perfection  of  which  he  is  sus 
ceptible."*  To  cultivate  man  to  the  full  and  produc 
tive  exercise  of  all  the  faculties  with  which  he  has 
been  endowed  by  the  Creator;  and,  hence,  it  is  a 
necessity  to  render  every  human  being  fit  for  his 
greatest  usefulness ;  and  society  has  not  done  its  duty, 
while,  to  any  individual,  the  opportunity  for  this  full 
development  is  wanting. 

So  extended  a  view  of  the  nature  of  education 
embraces  the  cultivation,  in  just  proportion,  of  all  the 
human  powers — physical,  mental,  and  moral,  none 
of  which  can  be  neglected  without  detriment  to 
the  others.  Such  is  their  mutual  dependence  and 

*  Kant. 


POPULAR    EDUCATION.  73 

support,  that  no  education  is  efficient  which  does  not 
apply  to  all  the  faculties  of  the  human  organization. 
Without  physical  energy,  the  frame  sinks  beneath  the 
nervous  exhaustion  of  mental  labor,  and  firmness  is 
wanting  for  the  fulfillment  of  moral  obligations.  For 
titude  abandons  the  weak  and  nervous,  and  industry 
is  a  virtue  beyond  the  reach  of  the  enervated  and  lan 
guid.  "To  exercise  an  art,  it  is  necessary  to  com 
mence  by  procuring  the  instruments;  and,  to  render 
these  instruments  useful,  it  is  necessary  that  they  be 
made  sufficiently  firm  and  solid.  To  learn  to  think,  it 
is  necessary,  then,  to  exercise  our  limbs,  senses,  and 
organs,  which  are  the  instruments  of  our  intelligence; 
and,  to  make  these  instruments  the  more  available,  it 
is  necessary  that  the  body  which  furnishes  them  should 
be  robust  and  healthy.  Thus,  so  far  from  the  reason 
proper  of  man  forming  itself  independently  of  the 
body,  it  is  the  good  constitution  of  the  body  which 
renders  the  operations  of  the  mind  easy  and  sure."  * 
Without  mental  power  and  cultivation,  physical 


Rousseau's  Emile. 
4 


74  POPULAR     EDUCATION. 

energies  fail  of  tlieir  entire  usefulness ;  and,  without 
moral  control,  both  physical  and  mental  power  become 
engines  of  vice  instead  of  the  supports  of  virtue,  and 
are  annihilated  by  their  corrupt  and  vitiated  manifes 
tations.  With  these  few  remarks  upon  the  nature  of 
education,  in  its  whole  signification,  our  further  in 
quiry  shall  be  directed  to  that  part  of  it  embracing 
mental  culture. 

Much  of  the  popular  indifference  in  relation  to  in 
tellectual  acquirements  may  arise  from  the  error  of 
regarding  acquirements  as  the  whole  of  education. 
Those  who  take  this  view  of  the  subject  may  well 
argue  that  it  is  a  waste  of  time  to  expend  it  in  the 
acquisition  of  knowledge  which  is  not  directly  appli 
cable  to  their  special  pursuits.  Languages,  mathe 
matics,  and  science,  they  may  say,  are  useless  to  him 
whose  vocation  in  life  has  no  dependence  upon  those 
branches  of  knowledge.  This  is  very  far  from  a  cor 
rect  view  of  the  subject.  Acquirements  are  not,  in 
themselves,  the  whole  of  education.  They  are  but 
the  means  of  effecting  it,  and  knowledge  is  the  neces 
sary  result  of  that  discipline  and  training  which  gives 


POPULAR     EDUCATION.  75 

mental  capacity  and  power.  If  it  were  possible  for 
any  knowledge  to  be  entirely  useless,  it  would  still 
have  served  a  valuable  purpose,  by  the  powers  devel 
oped  in  the  process  of  acquisition. 

Take  away  all  the  attainments  which  form  a  com 
plete  and  accomplished  education,  and  yet  the  mental 
power,  which  has  been  developed  ill  the  progress  of 
attainment,  remains  for  application  to  the  practical 
purposes  of  life.  The  fact  is  illustrated  every  day  by 
those  who,  for  want  of  use,  have  forgotten  the  studies 
of  their  youth,  and  yet  exhibit  the  mental  vigor  which 
those  studies  have  imparted,  and  go  on  through  life  in 
the  exercise  of  this  cultivated  strength,  until  nature 
yields  to  the  infirmities  of  age.  Man  is  bidden,  by  a 
law  of  "  Him  who  doeth  all  things  well,"  to  employ 
his  youth  in  disciplining  his  faculties  for  the  work  of 
life ;  for  it  is  a  physiological  law,  that  only  through 
the  period  of  growth  and  youth  are  the  faculties  sus 
ceptible  of  development  and  increase ;  and  when  the 
period  of  culture  terminates  in  that  of  action,  when 
the  active  duties  of  life  prohibit,  in  most  men,  the  con 
tinuance  of  study,  the  mind  has  attained  the  greatest 


76  POPULAR     EDUCATION. 

strength  of  which  it  is  capable.  It  may  go  on  to 
new  applications  of  its  power,  but  it  is  now  too  late 
to  increase  its  force,  and  the  man  must,  for  the  re 
mainder  of  his  existence,  suffer  the  penalty  of  neglect 
during  the  time  assigned  by  nature  for  the  purposes 
of  education ;  and  the  community  which  permits  this 
neglect  is  responsible,  beyond  evasion,  for  all  the  men 
tal  power  which  is  thus  lost.  In  this  view  of  the  sub 
ject,  the  neglect  of  early  education  is  not  only  the 
loss  of  acquirement,  but  the  loss  of  the  power  to  ac 
quire;  it  is  not  only  removing  objects  of  beauty  and 
pleasure  from  before  the  eye.  but  destroying  the  power 
of  sight.  It  is  the  failure  to  bring  the  man  up  to  the 
full  purpose  of  his  creation,  to  that  earthly  develop 
ment  which  foreshadows  the  expansive  powers  of  his 
future  immortality,  and  the  higher  intellectual  associa 
tion  of  his  disembodied  existence.  None  know  more 
assuredly  the  duty  and  importance  of  mental  culture 
than  those  whose  scientific  investigations  are  with  the 
materiality  through  which  mind  manifests  itself.  The 
following  passage  is  from  the  pages  of  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  living  physiologists: 


POPULAR    EDUCATION.  77 

"  By  this  immortal  soul,  the  existence  of  which  is 
thus  guessed  by  man,  but  of  whose  presence  within 
him  he  derives  the  strongest  assurance  from  ReveJa- 
tion,  man  is  connected  with  beings  of  a  higher  order, 
among  whom  intelligence  exists,  unrestrained  in  its 
exercise  by  the  imperfections  of  that  corporeal  mech 
anism  through  which  it  here  operates;  and  to  this 
state — a  state  of  more  intimate  communion  of  mind 
with  mind,  and  of  creatures  with  their  Creator,  he  is 
encouraged  to  aspire,  as  the  reward  of  the  improve 
ment  of  the  talents  here  committed  to  his  charge."* 

These  facts,  relative  to  intellectual  culture,  are  illus 
trated  by  every-day  observation  of  the  laws  of  the 
physical  frame.  Let  the  arm  of  man  be,  during  his 
period  of  growth,  still  and  inactive;  it  acquires  no 
muscular  development,  and  retains  in  adult  years  the 
feebleness  of  childhood;  but  let  it  swing  the  me 
chanic's  hammer,  or  the  wood-chopper's  axe,  and  it 
grows,  swells,  and  hardens  to  its  fullest  capability ;  and 

*  Principles  of  Human  Physiology,  by  Wm.  P.  Carpen 
ter,  M.  D,  F.  II.  S. 


POPULAR     EDUCATION. 


that  being  reached,  is  retained  by  constant  use  through 
the  whole  of  vigorous  manhood  ;  but  the  felled  forest, 
or  the  result  of  the  mechanic's  blows,  are  like  the 
acquirements  of  intellect,  not  the  education  but  the 
means  by  which  it  has  been  effected,  and  the  man 
made  ready  for  his  work. 

"Mental  philosophers  have  always  admitted  that 
if  a  man,  through  imperfect  education,  has  never  had 
his  reasoning  faculties  called  forth,  the  instrument  of 
that  power  becomes  more  or  less  atrophied,  and  the 
power  is  more  or  less  lost.  For  instance,  take  two 
boys  born  of  the  same  parents,  and  with  the  same,  or 
nearly  the  same  original  capacity.  Suppose  them  dif 
ferently  educated,  the  one  brought  up  in  the  fields 
and  all  mental  culture  neglected,  the  other  trained  for 
a  learned  profession.  When  these  two  have  arrived 
at  maturity,  oblige  them  to  change  places,  and  the 
incapacity  of  the  brain  of  the  peasant  would  only  be 
surpassed  by  the  incapacity  of  the  muscular  system 
of  the  student.  The  same  applies  to  moral  as  to 
intellectual  culture.  And  hence  the  same  import 
ance  of  early  education  for  the  formation  of  moral 


POPULAR    EDUCATION.  79 

strength,  as  for  the  formation  of  intellectual  or  mus 
cular  strength."* 

Such  being  the  effect  of  intellectual  culture  to  in 
crease  mental  vigor,  its  necessity  and  advantages  can 
not  be  limited  by  individual  occupation  or  pursuit; 
but  they  result  from  the  nature  of  man,  and  impose 
upon  that  nature  an  obligation  which  can  not  be  neg 
lected  without  the  guilt  and  the  penalty  of  crime. 
The  educated  mechanic,  laborer,  or  farmer,  wiil  have 
that  advantage  over  his  uninstructed  neighbor  which 
strength  has  over  weakness ;  arid,  in  his  business,  and 
all  other  relations  of  life,  will  have  the  greater  chance 
of  success,  let  them  be  in  morals,  skill,  and  all  other 
respects  equal.  Such  a  truth  scarcely  needs  illustra 
tion,  but  we  will  take  one  from  the  observations  of  a 
learned  foreigner  f  upon  the  influence  of  education  in 
the  factories  of  Lowell : 

"Some  of  the  factory  girls  have  been  teachers  in 


*  The  Human  Brain  ;  by  Sarmiel  Solly,  F.  R.  S, 
t  Frederick  Van    Raumer,  Professor  of  History   in  the 
ITniversitAr  of  Berlin. 


80  POPULAR    EDUCATION. 

the  schools,  and  some,  after  the  accumulation  of  a  lit 
tle  money,  return  to  that  occupation.  It  is  commonly 
found  that  those  girls  who  diligently  attended  school 
make  more  rapid  progress  in  the  factories,  and  earn 
more  than  the  uneducated.  The  printed  productions 
of  some  of  the  workwomen,  ('  The  Lowell  Offering,') 
show  a  degree  of  cultivation  of  which  one  has  no 
idea  in  the  European  factories." 

That  an  educated  intellect  is  not  incompatible  with 
the  pursuits  of  labor,  is  testified  to  by  the  fact  that  all 
men  are  born  with  the  capabilities  for  cultivation,  and 
it  is  inconsistent  with  the  arrangements  of  Providence 
to  endow  beings  with  powers  which  are  to  be  useless 
to  them.  We  have  evidence,  too,  of  the  harmonious 
combination  of  mental  culture  and  manual  labor,  in 
the  fact  that  several  learned  and  scientific  pursuits  re 
quire  as  much  mechanical  labor  as  ordinary  mechanic 
arts.  Such  is  the  necessity  for  a  combination  of  active 
labor  with  mental  exercise,  that  many  judicious  liter 
ary  men  seek  the  labor  in  amateur  workshops,  or  as 
laborers  on  their  farms,  or  in  the  fatiguing  amuse 
ments  of  the  chase.  On  the  other  hand,  mechanics 


POPULAR    EDUCATION.  81 

in  the  constant  exercise  of  their  calling  have  become 
eminently  learned,  -and  the  time  lost  by  the  ignorant 
in  idleness  and  low  dissipation  would  be  amply  suf 
ficient  for  extensive  intellectual  acquirements,  had  their 
faculties  been  developed  and  educated  to  the  capacity 
and  want,  and  the  pleasures  of  mental  occupation. 

The  evils  of  ignorance,  and  the  hourly  dependence 
of  the  uneducated,  their  subjection  to  imposture  and 
delusion,  may  be  taken  as  evidence  that  general 
education  is  among  the  first  duties  imposed  by  Provi 
dence  on  a  community  of  rational  beings.  The  igno 
rant  man  falls  a  ready  prey  to  the  vultures  of  society. 
Insane  fanaticism  leads  him  away  from  the  purity  and 
simplicity  of  Christian  truth.  Mercenary  lawyers  rob 
him  of  his  money  and  mar  his  prospects  in  the  halls 
of  justice ;  ignorant  physicians  impose  upon  his  cre 
dulity,  consume  his  substance,  and  ruin  the  health  of 
himself  and  family ;  pretenders  to  science  bewilder  his 
judgment,  and  tax  his  faith  in  their  impositions ;  in 
competent  teachers  leave  his  children  to  grow  up  in 
ignorance,  and  dishonest  politicians  make  him  the 

tool  of  their  selfish  purposes,  and  often  a  traitor  to  the 
4* 


82  POPULAR    EDUCATION. 

happiness  and  prosperity  of  his  country.  Such  being 
the  result  of  ignorance,  every  honest  member  of  soci 
ety  must  feel  that  he  has  a  personal  interest  in  the 
cause  of  general  education. 

Having  thus  far  endeavored  to  point  out  the  influ 
ence  of  education  upon  the  success  and  happiness  of 
individuals,  and  to  show  its  entire  compatibility  with 
the  pursuits  of  labor,  it  will  now  be  our  duty  to  con 
sider  its  bearing  upon  society  in  its  political  organiza 
tion. 

In  those  countries  which  have  their  government 
vested  in  hereditary  sovereigns,  and  their  laws  enforced 
by  military  power,  it  would  seem  that  the  less  gen 
eral  education,  the  less  manliness  of  intellect  existing 
among  the  people,  the  greater  the  security  of  the  con 
trolling  powers.  Some  despotic  governments,  recog 
nizing  the  relationship  between  popular  ignorance  and 
popular  subjection,  have  discouraged,  or  even  prohib 
ited  all  means  of  mental  culture;  have  made  war  upon 
books,  newspapers  and  schools,  and  cowering  before  the 
intellect  which  spoke  in  dramas,  or  breathed  in  the  mu 
sic  of  operas,  have  prohibited  them  from  presentation 


POPULAR     EDUCATION.  83 

to  the  public.  Such  means  of  education,  as  these 
governments  have  established  or  permitted,  have  been 
colleges  and  universities  for  the  education  of  the  higher 
classes  only. 

There  are,  however,  most  honorable  instances  of 
despotic  governments,  whose  monarchs,  either  yielding 
to  the  demands  of  the  people,  or  prompted  by  a 
philosophical  liberality  which  overleaped  selfish  inter 
ests,  or,  it  may  rather  be,  overruled  by  that  Provi 
dence  which  sees  the  "  end  from  the  beginning,"  have 
established  the  means  of  popular  education  through 
out  their  dominions.  Under  its  influence,  man  is  as 
cending  to  his  true  dignity,  and  armies,  in  ignorance 
the  mere  machines,  the  engines  of  despotism,  being 
educated,  are  promising  to  become  the  most  efficient 
means  of  accomplishing  civil  freedom. 

"  No  country  can  rival  Germany  in  the  general  dif 
fusion  of  knowledge,  and  common  school  education 
is  the  more  widely  extended,  as  parents  are  forced  by 
the  law  to  send  their  children  to  school,  or  at  least  to 
give  evidence  of  having  in  a  suitable  manner  provided 
for  their  education.  The  children  of  the  poor  enjoy, 


84  POPULAR    EDUCATION. 

of  course,  tha  benefits  of  instruction,  free  from  ex 
penses.  The  total  number  of  children,  frequenting 
the  common  schools  in  Germany,  amounts  to  more 
than  six  millions.  About  fifteen  millions  five  hundred 
thousand  Prussian  dollars  are,  in  Germany,  annually 
bestowed  upon  this  branch  of  education.  That,  with 
these  arrangements,  scarcely  none  above  six  years  old 
are  to  be  found  throughout  Germany  who  can  not 
read,  and  but  very  few  who  can  not  write,  is  not  to  be 
wondered  at.  Some  years  ago,  there  were,  among 
122,897  men  of  the  standing .  Prussian  army,  only 
two  soldiers  who  could  not  write,  and  these  were  not 
Germans,  but  Poles  from  the  province  of  Posen."  * 

Such  has  been  the  course  of  a  portion  of  Europe  in 
*egard  to  this  important  subject,  and  the  mental  power, 
thus  called,  into  action,  is  beginning  to  assume  its  con 
trol  over  the  destiny  of  nations.  It  presents  the  most 
wonderful  historic  evidence  of  the  extended,  benefi 
cent,  and  humanizing  influences  of  general  education. 

A  writer,  who  thinks  deeply,  and  expresses  himself 


*  Europe,  Past  and  Present,  by  Francis  H.  Ungewitter, 
LL.D. 


POPULAR    EDUCATION.  85 

forcibly,  offers  us  the  following  thoughts  on  this  sub 
ject  : 

"  But  events,  the  current  of  which  often  frustrates 
the  purposes  of  the  unprincipled,  interfered  to  disturb 
the  calculations  of  despotism.  When  the  light  of 
civilization  began  to  illuminate  the  face  of  society,  and 
to  warm  into  life  their  hopes  and  aspirations  after 
freedom,  it  was  found  impossible  to  remove  the  army 
beyond  the  reach  of  this  genial  influence.  Public 
opinion  found  its  way  into  the  barracks  and  mess- 
room,  followed  the  soldier  to  camp  and  garrison, 
accompanied  him  to  the  battle-field,  and  gradually 
inspired  him  with  the  wish  to  be  like  other  men,  an 
argumentative,  logical  free  preacher,  in  matters  of 
thought  altogether  his  own  master,  and,  therefore, 
inclined  to  inquire  into  the  causes  of  these  wars, 
which  his  valor,  patriotism  and  intellect  could  alone 
conduct  to  a  happy  issue. 

"  From  the  moment  this  change  was  effected  in  the 
military  service  of  Europe,  it  became  manifest  that 
the  doom  of  arbitrary  power  was  sealed ;  though  it  was, 
and  is  still,  impossible  to  foretell  the  date  of  its  final 


86  TOPULAR    EDUCATION. 


overthrow,  still,  the  order  of  things  which  owed  its 
existence  to  an  unreasoning  army,  must  obviously  pass 
more  or  less  rapidly  away,  when  that  representative 
of  the  nation's  energy  and  courage  assumes  the  right 
to  exercise  the  privilege  of  thought. 

"  Despotism  is  conscious  of  reposing  upon  a  basis? 
hollow  and  uncertain,  filled  with  combustible  and  ex 
plosive  materials,  to  which,  at  any  moment,  the  spark 
may  be  applied  that  will  shatter  into  ten  thousand 
fragments  the  whole  structure.  Doubts,  misgivings, 
alternate  boasting,  and  timidity — a  confident  appeal  to 
the  sword  at  one  moment,  and  at  another  an  appre 
hensive  shrinking  from  it — characterize  the  policy  of 
contemporary  governments.  It  is  felt  that  the  army 
is  no  longer  what  it  was — a  blind  instrument  wielded 
by  weakness  and  perfidy,  for  their  own  aggrandize 
ment.  Into  the  mind  of  the  European  soldier,  the 
notion  has  found  its  way  that  he  is  a  citizen  also,  and 
that  it  consequently  behooves  him  to  investigate,  in 
that  capacity,  the  nature  and  objects  of  the  designs  he 
is  first,  of  all  men,  called  upon  to  accomplish. 

"The  prestige  of  loyality  is  gone,  and  whenever 


POPULAR    EDUCATION.  87 

events,  whether  sooner  or  later,  shall  open  up  to  the 
Germans  a  rational  prospect  of  establishing  their  free 
dom,  nothing  can  be  calculated  upon  with  greater  cer 
tainty  than  the  defection  of  the  army  to  the  people. 

"  Despotism  now  stands  in  awe  of  its  own  instru 
ments.  It  called  them  up  and  subjected  them  to  the 
modifying  force  of  discipline,  to  further  its  own  de 
signs;  but,  having  completed  the  organization  of  its 
military  establishments,  it  trembles  at  its  own  handi 
work.  As  hitherto,  the  army  has  allied  itself  with 
the  few  against  the  many,  so  there  seems  to  be  every 
reason  to  believe  that  its  practice  will,  henceforward, 
be  reversed,  and  that,  belonging  chiefly  to  the  many, 
will  side  with  them  against  the  few."  * 

Can  we  contemplate  a  more  stupendous  illustration 
of  the  benefits  of  general  education  than  is  here  shown 
of  its  bearing  upon  civil  liberty,  converting,  by  the 
power  of  developed  intelligence,  the  organized  and 
systematic  enemies  of  freedom  into  its  most  ardent, 

*  United  Service  Magazine.  Article,  "  Military  Crisis  in 
Europe." 


88  POPULAR    EDUCATION. 

powerful,  and  efficient  supporters?  If  monarchies 
have  done  thus  much  for  the  popular  intelligence 
which  must  shake  their  thrones,  and  finally  overturn 
them,  what  then  is  the  duty  of  the  people  of  this  no 
ble  republic,  having  its  whole  fabric  resting  upon  the 
intelligence  of  the  people ;  where  each  individual  is  a 
part  of  the  sovereignity — each  individual  a  maker  of 
the  law — where  mental  and  moral  discipline,  and  gov 
erned  passions  form  the  power  of  efficient  obedience, 
make  submission  to  law  a  guardian  principle ,  and  the 
people  a  law-abiding  people!  Shall  the  sovereign 
and  law-making  power  be  an  ignorant  one,  and  yet 
produce  enlightened  government?  Shall  that  men 
tal  power  which  takes  the  place  of  bayonets,  and  ren 
ders  them  unnecessary,  be  an  untrained,  blind,  and 
undisciplined  force,  and  yet  preserve  harmony  and 
security? 

While  our  institutions  assert  the  capability  of  man 
for  self-government,  they  imply  that  it  is  the  attribute 
of  an  educated,  and  not  of  an  ignorant  people  ;  and 
hence,  we  are  under  obligations  to  the  whole  human 
family  to  found  the  principle  of  self-government  upon  its 


POPULAR     EDUCATION.  89 

own  sure  basis,  that  of  general  education  ;  and  it  is 
not  going  too  far  to  say  that  if  we  fail  of  our  duty,  in 
this  respect,  we  are  guilty  of  treachery  to  the  institu 
tions  of  our  country  and  to  the  rights  of  mankind. 

Our  responsibility  upon  this  subject  derives  increased 
force  from  the  nature  of  our  population.  It  is  not 
composed  only  of  those  born  under  our  institutions 
and  venerating  them  as  the  work  of  their  fathers,  but 
from  the  freedom  with  which  we  open  all  the  advan 
tages  of  our  conntry,  and  confer  all  civil  rights  upon 
those  who  have  no  traditional  alliance  with  our  consti 
tution,  but  rather  prejudices  with  other  lands  and 
other  civil  organizations,  it  is  necessary  that  the  na 
tional  intelligence  be  kept  so  deep  and  clear  as  to 
absorb  the  varied  and  mingled  streams  of  foreign  pop 
ulation,  and  yet  be  marked  by  no  other  trace  of  the 
union  than  increased  volume.  The  wonderful  national 
prosperity  which  has  blessed  our  country,  and  the 
success  which  has  so  far  attended  its  progress,  give  us 
the  assurance  that  we  have  in  part  done  our  duty,  and 
are  receiving  the  rich  reward  of  our  work.  Those 
who  are  remote  from  the  operation  of  the  causes  of 


90  POPULAR     EDUCATION. 


our  national  prosperity,  and  who  can  contrast  them 
with  a  different  state  of  things,  are,  perhaps,  more 
advantageously  placed  than  ourselves,  for  appreciating 
the  true  causes  of  the  prosperity  which  blesses  us,  as  a 
nation.  It  becomes  the  part  of  wisdom  to  hear  their 
report — to  listen  to  their  evidence,  and  to  be  influenced 
in  the  future,  by  the  instructions  of  the  past.  The 
following  remarks  are  taken  from  an  article  in  an  Eng 
lish  periodical*  upon  the  subject  of  "Education  in 
America :" 

"  What  is  the  enterprise  and  general  prosperity  of 
the  Americans  to  be  attributed  to,  (their  country  is  not 
naturally  so  rich  or  fruitful  as  Mexico,)  except  to  their 
general  enlightenment  ?  The  oldest  manufactories  of 
cotton  in  the  world  are  the  Hindoos ;  labor  with  them 
is  cheaper  than  it  is  in  any  other  part  of  the  world, 
yet  we  take  the  cotton  that  grows  at  the  doors  of  their 
factories,  bring  it  13,000  miles  to  this  country,  manu 
facture  it  here  where  labor  is  so  expensive,  take  it 
back  13,000  miles,  and  undersell  the  native  manufac 
turer.  Labor  is  dearer  in  America  than  in  any  other 


Frazcr's  Magazine. 


POPULAR     EDUCATION.  91 

part  of  the  world,  and  yet  we  dread  and  fear  their 
competition  more  than  that  of  any  other  nation.  The 
reason  of  all  this  is  obvious.  All  the  advantages 
which  the  Hindoo  possesses  are  far  more  than  counter 
balanced  by  his  intellectual  inferiority  to  ourselves; 
while  we  dread  the  American  with  reason,  because  he 
is,  intellectually  at  least,  our  equal,  and,  considering 
the  general  intelligence  and  good  conduct  of  the 
hands  he  employs,  our  superior.  To  what  cause,  ex 
cept  that  of  decided  superiority  in  captains  and  crews, 
can  we  attribute  the  fact  that  the  Americans  have  de 
prived  us  of  so  large  a  portion  of  the  whale-fishery 
as  in  a  measure  to  have  monopolized  it  ? 

"  American  clocks,  which  we  now  see  in  every  hall 
and  cottage,  ought  to  set  us  thinking.  We  may  be 
sure  of  this,  the  commerce  of  the  world  will  fall  into 
the  hands  of  those  who  are  most  deserving  of  it.  If 
pclitical  or  philanthropic  considerations  should  foil  to 
show  us  the  necessity  of  educating  our  people,  com 
mercial  considerations  will  one  day  remind  us  of  what 
we  ought  to  have  done.  We  can  only  hope  that  the 
reminder  may  not  come  too  late. 


92  POPULAR     EDUCATION. 

"  Enlightenment  is  the  great  necessity  and  the 
great  glory  of  our  age  ;  ignorance,  the  most  expen 
sive,  most  dangerous,  and  most  pressing  of  all  our 
evils.  Among  ourselves,  we  find  a  variety  of  motives 
converging  upon  this  conclusion.  The  statesman  has 
become  aware  that  an  enlightened  population  is  more 
orderly,  more  submissive,  in  times  of  public  distress,  to 
the  necessity  of  their  circumstances;  not  so  easily  led 
away  by  agitators;  in  short,  more  easily  and  more 
cheaply  governed.  The  political  economist  is  well 
aware  of  the  close  connection  between  general  intelli 
gence  and  successful  enterprise  and  industry.  The 
greater  the  number  of  enlightened  and  intelligent,  the 
greater  is  the  number  of  those  whose  thoughts  are  at 
work  in  subduing  nature,  improving  arts,  and  increas 
ing  national  wealth.  The  benevolent  man  is  anxious 
that  all  should  share  those  enjoyments  and  advantages 
which  he  himself  finds  to  be  greatest.  Both  church 
man  and  dissenter  know  well  enough  that  they  are 
under  the  necessity  of  educating.  And  the  manufac 
turer,  too,  who  is  employing,  perhaps,  many  more 
hands  than  the  colonel  of  a  regiment  commands,  is 


POPULAR    EDUCATION.  93 

now  becoming  well  aware  how  much  to  his  advantage 
it  is  that  his  men  should  prefer  a  book  or  a  reading- 
room  to  the  parlor  of  a  public  house  ;  should  under 
stand  what  they  are  about,  instead  of  being  merely 
able  to  go  through  their  allotted  task  as  so  many 
beasts  of  burden;  and  that  they  should  have  the 
strong  motive  of  making  their  homes  decent  and  re 
spectable,  and  of  bettering  their  condition.  All  these 
motives  are  now  working,  strongly  too,  in  the  public 
mind,  and  have  begun  to  bear  fruit." 

This  is  profitable  testimony,  as  to  the  bearing  of 
general  education  upon  the  individual  interests  of 
each  member  of  the  community,  and  upon  the  pros 
perity  of  the  nation.  While  it  presents  encouragement 
for  what  we  have  done,  it  by  no  means  presents  the 
assurance  that  we  have  performed  our  whole  duty,  but 
only  offers  a  reason  for  the  vice,  the  wretchedness,  and 
the  criminality,  which  are  the  natural  consequences 
of  the  want  of  general  education,  and  leads  to  the 
conviction  that  as  men,  or  as  a  nation,  we  have  not 
done  our  duty  while  there  is  one  individual  among  us 
who  has  not  had  the  opportunity  for  that  kind  of 


94  POPULAR   EDUCATION. 

mental  culture  which  shall  give  his  faculties  their  ful 
lest  possible  development.  Who,  now,  may  put  it  off 
and  say  it  is  none  of  his  business  ?  It  is  the  business 
of  every  man,  who  wishes  social  virtue,  security  and 
peace,  and  who  would  give  to  himself  and  his  children 
those  guarantees  for  correct  conduct,  which  are  afford 
ed  by  an  intelligent,  orderly,  and  well-regulated  neigh 
borhood. 

Having,  in  this  brief  manner,  endeavored  to  present 
the  importance  of  general  education  to  every  man  in 
the  community,  no  matter  what  may  be  his  pursuit, 
the  next  endeavor  shall  be  to  indicate  the  mode  of 
development,  which  shall  be  of  general  practicability. 

Generally  speaking,  there  may  be  said  to  be  three 
classes  of  study  developing  three  correspondent  divi 
sions  of  mental  power,  and  all  of  which  are  necessary 
to  complete  mental  culture,  and  to  prepare  the  indi 
vidual  for  his  future  studies  and  labors.  The  studies 
of  languages,  mathematics,  and  the  sciences  of  obser 
vation,  develop,  in  harmonious  dependence  upon  each 
other,  various  faculties  which  make  up  the  human 
intellect. 


POPULAR     EDUCATION. 


Language  is  a  comprehensive  mental  process;  it  is 
the  connecting  link  between  mortality  and  immor 
tality,  between  the  operations  of  the  mind  and  soul, 
and  their  expression  for  earthly  use ;  and  here  it  alone 
implies  a  wide  range  of  mental  culture,  and  the  in 
crease  and  development  of  many  faculties. 

Some  diversity  of  opinion  exists  as  to  the  relative 
importance  of  ancient  and  modern  languages.  Many 
contend  that  the  time  occupied  in  the  study  of  Latin 
and  Greek  is  thrown  away,  and  had  better  be  devoted 
to  the  acquirement  of  a  modern  language,  which  they 
argue  may  be  of  more  practical  utility.  This  dif 
ference  of  view  may  arise  from  the  error  of  regarding 
the  language  studied  as  the  object  only,  and  not  the 
means  of  mental  culture ;  and  it  may  not  be  out  of 
place  to  offer  here  suggestions  which  should  be  con 
sidered  in  relation  to  this  subject.  The  study  of  the 
dead  languages,  the  foundation  of  modern  languages, 
and  the  materials  of  which  they  are  formed,  would 
seem  to  be  better  fitted  for  disciplining  the  mental 
processes  concerned  in  the  acquisition  of  language. 
To  be  well  acquired,  they  train  the  powers  of  memory, 


96  POPULAR     EDUCATION. 

attention,  and  application,  and,  being  mastered,  they 
render  the  acquisition  of  modern  languages  easy,  from 
the  strength  they  may  have  given  to  the  faculty  of 
studying  language.  But  upon  the  ground  of  practical 
utility,  it  is  questionable  whether  the  ancient  languages 
have  not  advantages  over  the  modern.  The  occasion 
for  the  use  of  a  modern  language  occurs  to  very  few 
persons,  and  to  those  upon  rare  occasions  in  a  lifetime. 
How  few  of  those  who  study  French,  Spanish,  and 
Italian,  ever  find  a  necessity  for  the  use.  German,  in 
some  sections  of  our  country,  is  more  useful,  though 
rarely  necessary.  On  the  other  hand,  scarcely  a  page 
of  English  can  be  read,  or  a  study  entered  upon,  with 
out  the  utility  of  the  ancient  languages  being  felt,  in 
the  precision  they  give  to  the  many  words  derived  from 
them,  and  in  our  scientific  and  theological  investiga 
tions  they  are  essential. 

The  influence  of  mathematical  studies,  in  giving 
firmness  and  endurance  to  the  attention,  in  strength 
ening  the  reasoning  powers,  and  guarding  the  mind 
against  hasty  conclusions,  is  generally  understood 
and  admitted.  There  are  few  to  whom  scientific 


POPULAR    EDUCATION.  97 

knowledge  is  not  of  every-day  utility ;  but  if  it  had  no 
other  value  than  the  wide  and  pleasurable  range  it  gives 
the  mind,  its  neglect  would  be  inexcusable.  There  is  a 
wide  difference  between  the  man  who  sees  in  the  boil 
ing  fluid,  the  burning  taper,  and  the  glowing  fire,  the 
falling  dew  and  gathering  clouds,  nothing  but  every 
day  facts,  familiar  by  use,  and  suggesting  no  range  of 
thought,  and  him  who  sees  in  all  of  them  kindred 
processes  in  the  vast  laboratory  of  nature,  illustrating 
beautiful  and  extended  laws,  over  which  the  mind 
expands  with  pleasure,  until  it  reaches,  through  his 
works,  the  great  Cause  and  Ruler  of  all. 

The  laboring  man,  who  goes  to  his  work  with  his 
mind  open  to  such  contemplations,  from  all  he  may 
see — the  flower,  the  rock,  or  the  earth  upon  which  he 
treads ;  the  metal,  or  the  wood  in  which  he  works,  is 
a  man  of  higher  nature,  and  has  greater  sources  of 
happiness  than  he  who  toils  in  mental  vacancy,  and 
passes  from  the  fatigue  of  labor  to  the  enjoyments  of 
sense  and  animal  indulgence.  To  these  studies  may 

be  advantageously  added  the  art  of  drawing,  which 
5 


98  POPULAR      EDUCATION. 

imparts  accuracy  to  the  eye  and  hand — of  practical 
utility  in  almost  every  occupation  in  life. 

The  means  of  education  being  supplied  to  the  peo 
ple,  there  is  ample  time  for  acquiring  well  all  the  stu 
dies  essential  to  mental  development,  during  the  period 
of  growth  of  the  mental  faculties,  and  before  entering 
upon  professional,  commercial,  or  mechanical  pursuits. 
In  the  latter  case,  the  mental  cultivation  might  go, 
step  by  step,  with  all  the  manual  labor  which  should 
be  required  of  youth.  It  is  unnecessary  to  enter  into 
a  detail  of  the  specific  studies  in  each  division  of  men 
tal  culture,  as  these  are  either  self-indicated  or  might 
be  influenced  by  circumstances,  or  would  be  contin 
gent  upon  the  views  and  capabilities  of  those  who  are 
the  instructors  of  youth. 

General  education,  or  mental  development,  having 
so  important  an  influence  upon  the  welfare  of  the  in 
dividual  and  of  society,  it  is  evident  that  the  process 
should  be  committed  only  to  the  most  competent,  and 
hence  the  business  of  the  teacher  becomes  one  of  the 
greatest  trust  and  responsibility.  His  mistakes  and 
neglects  are  too  often  beyond  the  reach  of  correction. 


POPULAR     EDUCATION.  99 

Until  the  community  will  recognize  the  importance  of 
the  teacher's  duties,  and,  by  competent  rewards,  respect, 
and  honor,  invite  to  their  profession  its  appropriate 
talent  and  character,  there  can  be  no  efficient  general 
education.  In  addition  to  the  acquirements  to  be  im 
parted,  the  teacher  should  possess  a  knowledge  of 
human  nature  and  skill  in  its  management,  which  can 
only  be  acquired  by  steady  devotion  to  his  pursuit ; 
such  a  devotion  as  will  only  be  given  to  a  pursuit 
which  presents  the  inducements  of  a  permanent  occu 
pation.  Under  the  existing  circumstances  of  the  pro 
fession  of  teaching,  many,  the  most  capable  of  its 
duties,  make  it  but  a  means  of  reaching  other  profes 
sions,  and  abandon  teaching  just  as  they  become  fit 
for  pursuing  it.  This  must  be  fatal  to  progress  in  the 
art,  but  such  must  continue  to  be  the  case  until  the 
community  honors  the  profession  of  teaching  in  pro 
portion  to  its  intrinsic  value  and  nobility.  Some,  of 
the  greatest  intellectual  power,  have  given  their  lives 
to  duties  of  instruction,  and  have  impressed  their  men 
tal  stamp  upon  those  who  have  exhibited  it  in  various 
walks  of  intellectual  greatness.  As  we  honor  mind  in 


100  POPULAR     EDUCATION. 

its  highest  manifestations,  we  honor  and  respect  that 
occupation  which  gives  to  mind  its  form  and  direction ; 
those  who  commence  that  culture  which  produces  the 
eminent  in  art,  science,  literature,  and  statesmanship, 
to  adorn,  honor,  and  benefit  their  country. 

But,  despised  as  his  pursuit  may  be  by  the  unthink 
ing,  unrewarded  as  he  may  feel  to  be  his  labors  and 
devotion,  the  teacher  who  has  done  his  duty  cherishes 
within  his  bosom  the  proud  consciousness  that  to  him 
has  been  intrusted  the  honored  duty  of  lighting  up 
the  double  flame  of  intellect  and  religion ;  the  one  to 
shed  its  brilliant  gleams  along  and  around  his  pu 
pils'  path  through  time;  the  other,  more  brilliant,  to 
brighten  the  darkness  of  the  tomb,  and  to  light  the 
soul  on  to  immortality. 


HISTORICAL  ACCOUNT 


EfilE  COUNTY,  PENNSYLVANIA. 


WRITTEN  FOR  THE  HISTORICAL  SOCIETY  O¥  MAUVLANJ). 


HISTORICAL  ACCOUNT 


ERIE   COUNTY,   PENNSYLVANIA. 


EVERY  year  during  the  season  of  travel,  thousands 
of  voyagers  embark  at  Buffalo,  in  the  state  of  New 
York,  on  board  the  magnificent  steamers  leaving  that 
port  for  the  voyage  of  the  great  lakes.  The  first  point 
of  interest  at  which  these  steamers  stop,  is  the  har 
bor  and  town  of  Erie,  the  only  port  possessed  by 
Pennsylvania  upon  the  lakes,  and  formerly  known  by 
the  name  of  Presque  Isle.  This  place  is  distant  from 
Buffalo,  ninety  miles,  and  thus  early  in  the  voyage 
commences  the  enjoyment  and  interest  derived  from 
picturesque  scenery  and  beauty  of  location.  The  lake 
shore  rises  into  a  bold  bluff,  the  base  being  a  slaty 
rock,  to  the  height  of  eighty  feet,  and  then  spreads 
out  into  a  broad  irregular  plain,  covered  with  thickets 
of  wild  roses,  with  forests  and  farms.  This  plain  is 


104  HISTORICAL     ACCOUNT    OF 

broken  by  ravines,  through  which  are  flowing  rivulets 
either  quietly  to  join  the  lake,  or  to  tumble  their  wa 
ters  in  mimic  falls  over  the  rocky  bed  from  which 
they  have  washed  the  superimposed  soil.  Seen  from 
the  deck  of  a  steamer,  the  country  back  rises  and  sweeps 
away  in  a  beautiful  slope  of  varied  hue,  until  its  dark 
forest- crowned  summit,  at  almost  a  mountain  elevation, 
cuts  against  the  sky.  In  reality  it  is  a  succession  of 
plains,  or  ridges,  as  though  there  had  been  successive 
elevations  of  the  land,  or  depressions  of  the  lake. 

The  harbor  or  bay  of  Presque  Isle,  is  formed  by  a 
low  and  thickly-wooded  point  or  peninsula,  which, 
shooting  out  from  the  bold  bluff,  bends  around  like  a 
bowed  arm,  until  its  free  extremity  approaches  a  shoal 
or  spit  shooting  from  the  coast  below,  and  thus  hugs 
in  this  beautiful  bay,  called  Presque  Isle,  from  the 
almost  island  character  of  this  peninsula.  The  beau 
tiful  bay  thus  shut  in  is  five  miles  in  length  by  two  in 
breadth,  and  has  a  depth  of  eighteen  feet.  Its  entrance 
between  the  approaching  points  of  land  had  originally 
but  four  or  five  feet;  the  erection  of  stone  piers  upon 
these  points,  by  confining  the  channel,  has  given 


ERIE     COUNTY,      PA,  105 

greater  force  to  the  currents  and  washed  it  out  to  the 
depth  of  nine  feet. 

On  the  plain  overlooking  this  bay  and  peninsula, 
stands  the  town  or  borough  of  Erie,  containing  now 
between  five  and  six  thousand  inhabitants. 

This  locality,  so  interesting  in  its  natural  arrange 
ments  and  adornments,  is  also  worthy  of  attention  from 
its  historical  associations.  Here  was  the  commence 
ment,  within  our  territory,  of  the  chain  of  French  forts, 
which,  crossing  to  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi,  were  in 
tended  to  unite  Canada  with  Louisiana,  and  to  shut 
out  British  rule  from  this  region. 

Here  is  located  the  scene  of  the  youthful  and  dar 
ing  adventures  of  Washington.  Here  General  An 
thony  Wayne  terminated  his  earthly  career;  and  this 
point  is  intimately  associated  with  one  of  the  proudest 
naval  achievements  of  our  last  war  with  Great  Britain. 

Before  doing  more  than  allude  to  these  interesting 
associations,  it  may  be  better  to  give  a  short  statement 
of  the  early  political  history  and  settlement  of  the 
country. 

When  the  courtier  quaker,  as  Macaulay  represents 
5* 


106  HISTORICAL     ACCOUNT    OF 

him,  Wm.  Penn,  received  from  Charles  II.  the  grant 
of  Pennsylvania,  the  charter  prescribed  that  "  the  said 
lands  were  to  be  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  begin 
ning  of  the  three-and-fortieth  degree  of  north  latitude." 
No  measures  were  taken  to  ascertain  where  the  said 
line  would  be  located  on  the  ground,  until  so  late  as 
the  year  1785.  Commissioners  were  then  appointed 
on  the  part  of  Pennsylvania  and  on  that  of  New  York, 
to  ascertain  the  northern  boundary  of  the  state  from 
the  river  Delaware  westward,  to  the  north-west  corner 
of  Pennsylvania.  The  commissioners  first  appointed 
were  David  Rittenhouse,  upon  the  part  of  Pennsyl 
vania,  and  Samuel  Holland,  on  the  part  of  New  York. 
They  proceeded  to  act  in  pursuance  of  their  appoint 
ment,  and  in  December,  1786,  ascertained  and  fixed 
the  beginning  of  the  forty-third  degree  of  north  lati 
tude,  erected  suitable  monuments  thereof  at  and  near 
the  river  Delaware,  but  were  prevented,  by  the  in 
clemency  of  the  weather,  from  proceeding  further  in 
the  survey.  The  next  year  Andrew  Ellicott  was  ap 
pointed  a  commissioner  for  the  above  purpose,  on  the 
part  of  Pennsylvania,  and  James  Clinton  and  Simeon 


ERIE      COUNTY,      PA.  107 

Dewit,  on  the  part  of  New  York.  In  the  year  1787, 
they  completed  the  running  and  marking  of  this  north 
ern  boundary  line,  two  hundred  and  fifty-nine  miles 
and  eighty-eight  perches,  from  its  commencement  at 
the  Delaware  river  to  its  termination  in  Lake  Erie, 
five  or  six  miles  east  of  the  Ohio  state  line,  and  through 
out  the  whole  distance  marked  by  mile-stones,  each 
one  indicating  the  number  of  miles  it  is  distant  from 
the  river  Delaware.  In  addition  to  these  stones  there 
are  also  throughout  the  line,  mile-trees  marked,  in  the 
same  manner.  In  1789,  an  act  of  Assembly  was 
passed  confirming  the  acts  of  the  commissioners  and 
establishing  the  line  run  by  them  as  the  boundary  be 
tween  New  York  and  Pennsylvania.  This  line  run 
ning  with  such  undeviating  straightness  from  east  to 
west,  first  gave  to  Pennsylvania  a  little  corner  upon 
Lake  Erie,  without  port  or  harbor — a  mere  tantalizing 
look-out  upon  its  broad  expanse  of  blue  waters,  with 
out  any  facilities  for  participating  in  the  commerce 
which  they  were  destined  to  bear.  This  county  of 
Erie,  and  harbor  of  Presque  Isle,  were  not  then  in  the 
state  of  Pennsylvania.  But  by  reference  to  the  map, 


108  HISTORICAL     ACCOUNT    OP 

we  see  that  the  northern  boundary  of  Pennsylvania  is 
not  now  a  rigid  straight  line,  but  that  it  makes  a  sin 
gular  and  sudden  projection  or  shoulder  jutting  out 
upon  Lake  Erie  —  that  the  boundary  line,  as  it  draws 
near  the  lake,  makes  a  sudden  turn  more  to  the  north 
and  runs  out  into  the  lake,  cutting  out  a  "  huge  can  tie  " 
of  what  was  the  acute,  south-west  angle  of  New  York, 
and  we  now  proceed  to  some  notice  of  this  u  Triangu 
lar  Tract,"  as  it  is  technically  called. 

To  the  jurisdiction  and  ownership  of  this  important 
little  piece  of  territory  there  were  conflicting  claims. 
New  York  claimed  jurisdiction  by  virtue  of  her  charter. 
Massachusetts  made  the  same  claim — the  possession 
and  ownership  of  the  soil  were  with  the  aborigines. 

The  statesmen  of  Pennsylvania  at  an  early  day  per 
ceived  the  importance  of  having  a  front  with  a  harbor 
upon  the  lake,  and  took  the  necessary  measures  to  ef 
fect  it.  In  pursuance  with  negotiations  had  upon  that 
subject,  New  York  ceded  her  right  to  the  United 
States,  and  Massachusetts  did  the  same.  In  the  mean 
time  Pennsylvania  entered  into  arrangements  to  pur 
chase  from  the  Indians  their  right  to  the  soil  and 


ERIE      COUNTY,     PA.  109 

jurisdiction  of  the  same  tract;  and  on  the  ninth  of 
January,  seventeen  hundred  and  eighty-nine,  these 
were  ceded  for  the  sum  of  twelve  hundred  pounds. 
This,  it  is  believed,  was  the  last  purchase  made  from 
the  Indians  by  the  state  of  Pennsylvania,  extinguish 
ing  all  native  claim  to  lands  within  her  borders  —  the 
same  just  and  peaceful  character  marking  the  closing- 
transaction  on  Lake  Erie,  in  1789,  with  which  the 
first  negotiation  commenced  on  the  Delaware  in  1681. 

On  the  third  of  March,  1792,  the  United  States, 
for  the  sum  of  one  hundred  and  fifty-one  thousand 
six  hundred  and  forty  dollars  and  twenty-five  cents, 
ceded  to  the  state  of  Pennsylvania  this  important 
"  Triangular  Tract,"  containing  two  hundred  and  two 
thousand  one  hundred  and  eighty-seven  acres. 

Although  the  political  right  of  possession  and  juris 
diction  was  now  settled,  this  tract  was  still  to  be  the 
subject  of  much  individual  dispute  and  litigation,  very 
much  retarding  its  settlement  and  improvement,  or 
rather  breaking  them  up  after  they  had  commenced. 
On  the  third  of  April,  1792,  a  law  was  passed  by  the 
state  for  the  sale  and  settlement  of  all  the  vacant  land 


110  HISTORICAL     ACCOUNT     OF 

lying  north  and  west  of  the  Ohio  and  the  Alleghany 
rivers,  and  Connewango  Creek.  This  included  all  the 
lands  from  Pittsburgh  to  Lake  Erie  and  west  of  the 
Alleghany  river.  Portions  of  this  land  in  the  differ 
ent  districts  had  been  appropriated  by  the  state  in  the 
way  of  donation  to  the  officers  and  soldiers  of  the 
Pennsylvania  line  in  the  war  of  the  revolution. 

The  law  which  provided  for  the  sale  and  settlement 
of  the  vacant  lands,  stipulated  that  they  should  be 
granted  to  actual  settlers  in  tracts  of  four  hundred 
acres.  The  settlement,  the  extent  and  kind  of  which 
were  specified,  was  required  to  be  made  within  two 
years  from  the  time  of  the  grant,  unless  obstacles  arose 
from  the  enemies  of  the  United  States,  meaning,  more 
particularly,  the  Indians.  Under  this  law  the  lands 
were  chiefly  taken  up  by  large  speculating  companies, 
though  each  tract  was  nominally  in  the  right  of  sepa 
rate  individuals.  The  companies  failed  to  comply 
with  the  stipulations  of  the  law,  requiring  settlement, 
cultivation  and  improvement,  within  two  years,  and 
individuals  thinking  the  company  claim  vacated,  proj 
ceeded  to  settle  and  to  make  improvements  upon  the 


ERIE      COUNTY,      PA.  Ill 

land.  Here,  again,  were  three  kinds  of  claims:  tlie 
revolutionary  donation,  the  company  settlement,  and 
the  individual  occupation. 

After  much  and  protracted  litigation,  the  final  set 
tlement  was  in  favor  of  the  company  title,  upon  the 
plea  that  the  Indians  had  offered  obstacles  to  the  set 
tlement  within  the  prescribed  period.  These  difficul 
ties  spread  abroad  the  impression  that  the  titles  to  land 
in  this  district  were  not  safe,  and  hence  emigrants 
passed  by  and  went  into  the  adjoining  part  of  Ohio — 
the  Western  or  Connecticut  Reserve,  as  it  was  formerly 
called — and  hence  the  Western  Reserve  has  an  earlier 
and  more  wealthy  settlement  than  this  part  of  Penn 
sylvania.  These  uncertainties  have,  however,  long 
since  been  terminated,  and  the  county  is  steadily  pro 
gressing  in  wealth,  numbers,  and  improvements. 

There  have  been  few,  if  any,  pioneers  in  any  of  our 
new  country  who  have  had  to  encounter  greater  pri 
vations,  hardships,  sufferings  and  dangers,  than  the 
first  settlers  of  Erie  county.  To  a  very  late  period 
the  country  was  a  wilderness,  and  the  unprotected 
population  was  exposed  to  the  murderous  attacks  of 


112  HISTORICAL    ACCOUNT    OF 

the  Indians.  So  recently  as  May,  1795,  a  Mr.  Rut- 
ledge  and  his  son  were  murdered  by  the  savages  at  a 
point  which  now  forms  the  junction  of  two  of  the 
principal  streets  of  Erie. 

Without  roads  through  this  wilderness,  all  the  sup 
plies  had  to  be  procured  from  Pittsburgh  or  through 
Canada.  From  Pittsburgh  the  supplies  ascended  in 
keel  boats,  the  Alleghany  river,  French  Creek,  Le 
Boeuf  Creek,  to  where  the  village  of  Waterford  now 
stands,  fourteen  miles  from  the  lake  shore,  and  from 
this  point  they  were  carried  on  pack-horses.  The 
transportation  from  Canada  was  by  bateaux.  The 
first  wheat  grown  in  Erie  county  was  carried  more 
than  one  hundred  miles  to  Chippewa,  Canada,  to  be 
ground. 

The  county  of  Erie  and  the  adjoining  county  of 
Crawford,  were  surveyed  and  laid  out  into  tracts  of 
400  acres,  as  early  as  1794,  and  a  few  adventurers 
pushed  their  way  into  the  county  of  Erie  at  that  time, 
but  no  permanent  settlements  were  made  until  1705 
and  1796. 

The  great  southern  road  which  leaves  the  lake 


ERIE     COUNTY,     PA.  113 

shore  at  Erie  for  Pittsburgh,  immediately  commences 
ascending  the  succession  of  ridges  which  have  been 
described  as  characteristic  of  the  formation  of  the  coun 
try,  giving  us  at  each  step  a  more  extended  view  over 
the  forests  beneath  us,  the  town,  the  bay,  and  the  lake. 
About  ten  miles  from  the  lake  shore,  the  greatest  ele 
vation,  about  six  hundred  feet,  is  reached,  and  at  the 
distance  of  fourteen  miles,  on  the  southern  border  of 
the  county,  we  descend  into  the  pretty  little  valley,  in 
which,  on  the  banks  of  a  miniature  lake,  stands  the 
town  of  Waterford.  The  little  lake,  called  Le  Boeuf, 
empties  its  waters  by  a  small  creek  of  the  same  name 
into  French  creek,  and  by  this  into  the  Alleghany  and 
Ohio  rivers.  We  have  here  these  waters  taking  their 
rise  in  the  same  hills,  and  in  proximity  to  each  other, 
finding  their  way  to  the  Atlantic,  by  the  distant  chan 
nels  of  the  Mississippi  and  the  St.  Lawrence.  But  we 
have  now  come  to  this  point,  from  its  interesting  his 
torical  associations,  as  being  the  scene  of  the  youthful 
achievements  of  Washington  when  in  his  20th  year,  in 
the  service  of  Great  Britain,  and  commissioned  by 
Governor  Dinwiddie,  of  Virginia,  he  accomplished  his 


114  HISTORICAL     ACCOUNT     OF 


mission  to  the  French  posts  of  this  region.  It  may 
not  be  out  of  place  to  recall  the  circumstances  which 
required  him  to  enter  upon  this  service. 

In  Sparks'  Life  of  Washington,  chapter  3d,  it  is 
stated  "  The  time  was  now  at  hand  when  the  higher 
destinies  of  Washington  were  to  unfold  themselves. 
Intelligence  came  from  the  frontiers  that  the  French 
had  crossed  the  lakes  from  Canada  in  force;"  friendly 
Indians,  seeing  these  aggressions  and  the  strength  of 
the  French,  were  intimidated  from  their  fidelity,  and 
those  of  hostile  feelings  were  encouraged  to  open  ag 
gression.  One  messenger  had  already  been  sent  to 
meet  these  threatened  dangers,  but  had  shrunk  from 
the  accomplishment  of  his  task.  Under  these  circum 
stances,  Washington  was  commissioned  to  proceed  to 
the  posts  of  the  intruders  to  protest  against  their 
aggressions  and  to  warn  them  of  the  consequences. 

The  journey  before  him  was  nearly  seven  hundred 
miles,  over  rugged  and  untracked  mountains ;  through 
a  savage  wilderness  and  savage  tribes.  Commissioned 
on  the  31st  day  of  October,  1753,  he  left  Williams- 
burgh,  the  Virginia  seat  of  government,  on  the  same 


ERIE      COUNTY,      PA.  115 

day,  and  on  the  llth  of  December  arrived  at  the 
French  post  on  the  little  lake  of  Le  Boeuf.  Washing 
ton  records  in  his  journal  that  on  his  way  out,  during 
an  interview  with  an  Indian  chief,  the  Half  King,  tho 
chief  "  informed  me  that  they  had  built  two  forts,  one 
on  Lake  Erie,  and  another  on  French  creek,  near  a 
small  lake,  fifteen  miles  asunder,  and  a  large  wagon 
road  between  them.  They  are  both  built  after  the  same 
model  but  different  in  size,  that  on  the  lake  being 
largest.  He  gave  me  a  plan  of  them  of  his  own 
drawing." 

From  his  journal  of  the  thirteenth  of  December,  two 
days  after  his  arrival,  we  have  the  following  description 
of  this  fort : 

"  The  chief  officers  retired  to  hold  a-  council  of  war, 
which  gave  me  an  opportunity  of  taking  the  dimen 
sions  of  the  fort  and  making  what  observations  I  could. 

"It  is  situated  on  the  south  or  west  fork  of  French 
creek,  near  the  water,  and  is  almost  surrounded  by  the 
creek,  and  a  small  branch  of  it  which  forms  a  kind  of 
island.  Four  houses  compose  the  sides.  The  bastions 
arc  made  of  piles  driven  into  the  ground,  standing 


116  HISTORICAL     ACCOUNT    OF 

more  than  twelve  feet  above  it  and  sharp  at  the  top ; 
with  port  holes  cut  for  cannon,  and  loopholes  for  the 
small-arms  to  fire  through.  There  are  eight  six-pound 
pieces  mounted  on  each  bastion,  and  one  piece  of  four 
pounds  before  the  gate.  In  the  bastions  are  a  guard 
house,  chapel,  doctor's  lodging,  and  the  commander's 
private  stores ;  round  which  are  laid  platforms  for  the 
cannon  and  men  to  stand  upon.  There  are  several 
barracks  without  the  fort  for  the  soldiers'  dwelling,  cov 
ered,  some  with  bark,  and  some  with  boards,  made 
chiefly  of  logs.  There  are  also  several  other  houses' 
such  as  stables,  smith  shop,  &c." 

The  locality  of  this  early  and  important  mission  is 
now,  as  before  mentioned,  the  village  of  Waterford. 
The  French  fort  has  disappeared,  and  the  present  road 
passes  over  part  of  its  site;  and  frequently  an  old 
cannon  ball,  or  some  implement  of  corroded  metal, 
turns  up  as  a  relic  of  its  bygone  days  and  occupants. 
The  Le  Boeuf  Hotel  is  in  part  constructed  of  the  block 
house  which  succeeded  the  French  work,  and  the 
road  from  this  work  to  that  on  the  lake  shore  is  still 
traceable. 


ERIE      COUNTY,     PA.  117 

It  seems  net  a  little  remarkable,  that  Washington, 
at  a  time  of  life  when  curiosity  is  most  active,  being 
within  two  hours'  ride  of  the  great  lakes,  and  a  good 
road  to  conduct  him  to  their  shores,  should  not  have 
visited  them;  especially,  as  in  that  day  they  must 
have  been,  from  the  great  difficulty  of  reaching  them, 
even  a  much  greater  wonder  than  they  are  now.  From 
the  minute  character  of  his  journal,  it  is  evident  that 
if  he  had  visited  the  lake  it  would  have  been  men 
tioned;  and  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  the 
French  would  have  prevented  him.  He  was  at  the 
Fort  from  the  eleventh  until  the  sixteenth  of  Decem 
ber,  and  that  he  did  not  seek  to  gratify  the  natural 
curiosity:  which  he  must  have  felt,  isVorthy  of  remark, 
as  showing  how  completely,  even  in  such  early  youth, 
all  private  feelings  were  sacrificed  to  public  duty.^His 
constant  vigilance  was  necessary,  to^Tprevent  his  In 
dians  from  being  seduced  from  him£and  on  the  15th 
he  says,  "I  can'notjsay  that  everjn  my  life  I  suffered 
so  much  anxiety  as  I  did  in'this  affair ; "  and  in  a  pre 
ceding  part  of  the  journal  he  says,  "  As  I  had  orders 
to  make  all  possible  dispatch."  When  he  had  reached 


118  HISTORICAL     ACCOUNT    OF 

the  French  commander  on  Le  Boeuf  Creek,  the  point 
to  which  duty  called  him  was  reached;  and  although, 
after  six  weeks'  hard  and  perilous  journeying,  he  was 
within  a  few  hours  of  one  of  the  most  interesting 
natural  phenomena  of  our  globe,  the  youth  of  twenty 
in  fulfillment  of  his  duty,  turned  from  wonders  which 
annually  invite  hundreds  across  the  Atlantic. 

On  the  eastern  edge  of  the  town  of  Erie,  are  still 
to  be  seen  the  remains  of  the  fort  on  the  lake  shore. 
It  was  picturesquely  situated,  at  a  point  where  the 
bluff  is  broken  by  a  ravine  through  which  flows  a 
small  creek.  Here,  then,  was  the  commencement  of 
the  chain  of  works  within  our  own  territory,  which 
was  to  unite  Canada  with  Louisiana,  and  shut  out  the 
British  rule  and  the  British  race  from  the  belted  ter 
ritory.  What  an  illustration  of  the  pride  and  power  of 
nations !  of  human  sagacity  and  foresight !  Scarcely 
one  hundred  years  have  rolled  away;  and  as  one 
stands  amid  these  ruins  of  the  monuments  and  means 
of  military  power  and  aggrandizement — of  monopoliz 
ing  associations,  the  mind  is  pleasantly  oppressed  by 
the  wonderful  events  which  crowd  the  time  marked 


Eli  IE      COUNTY,     PA.  119 


by  these  mementos  of  the  past,  and  by  the  present 
moment.  The  lilies  of  France,  which  once  floated 
here,  where  are  they  ?  No  longer  the  emblem  of  a 
nation  or  a  race ;  while  the  rival  Cross  of  St.  George 
has  yielded  to  the  Star-spangled  Banner — the  emblem 
of  a  nation  and  of  institutions  then  tmthought-of  and 
unimagined.  Beneath  the  folds  of  the  new-born  flag, 
the  blue  waters  before  us  are  dotted  by  the  sails  of 
commerce,  and  dashed  into  foam  by  rushing  steamers. 
The  brook  beneath  us,  which  brawled  through  a  lonely 
wilderness,  is  now  silenced  by  the  clattering  mills  on  its 
banks ;  while  the  solitary  fortress  has  mouldered  into 
a  ruin,  before  the  civilization,  the  peaceful  arts  and 
animation  of  the  populous  city.  The  stripling  youth 
who  trod  this  wilderness,  the  modest  messenger  to 
France's  proud  knight,  St.  Pierre,  has  his  name  and 
fame  written  on  marble  monuments,  and  in  the  hearts 
of  men,  as  the  founder  of  a  nation — the  warrior  of 
its  flag,  and  the  hero  of  the  world. 

Standing  on  the  ruins  of  the  old  French  fort,  and 
looking  over  the  ravine  to  its  opposite  bank,  the  eye  is 
arrested  by  an  isolated  block-house,  of  time-blackened 


120  HISTORICAL     ACCOUNT     OF 

timbers,  rising  from  the  grass-covered  brow  of  the 
hill.  This  block-house  was  erected  in  the  winter 
of  1813-14,  by  the  Pennsylvania  volunteers,  then  in 
the  service  of  the  United  States.  But  on  the  spot 
where  it  stands,  and  in  a  block-house  which  preceded 
this,  one  of  America's  most  gallant  sons  breathed  his 
last  It  was  here  that  "Mad  Anthony"  General 
Wayne  ended  his  mortal  career.  He  was  on  his  way 
from  the  west,  where  he  had  been  in  the  service  of  his 
country,  when,  in  December,  1796,  he  sickened  and 
died  at  this  place,  and  was  buried  near  the  flag-staff. 
In  1810,  his  remains  were  removed  by  his  family,  and 
found  in  such  a  state  of  peculiar  preservation  that  the 
form  of  the  body  and  features  was  preserved. 

During  the  wanderings  of  his  youthful  exile,  in  our 
country,  the  late  King  of  the  French,  Louis  Phillippe, 
found  kindness  and  hospitality  in  Erie  county.  His 
host,  a  gentleman  by  the  name  of  Reese,  has  but 
recently  died.  The  cabin  of  this  gentleman  stood  on 
what  is  now  the  corner  of  Second  and  French  streets, 
in  the  town  of  Erie;  and  here  he  received  and  enter 
tained  the  Prince  who  was  destined  to  a  future  of 


ERIE     COUNTY,      PA.  121 

such  varied  and  diverse  fortune — from  exile  and  beg 
gary  to  a  throne,  and  from  that  again  to  banishment 
and  the  protection  of  foreigners. 

On  the  eighth  of  April,  1793,  the  first  act  was 
passed  authorizing  the  laying-out  of  a  town  at  the  Bay 
of  Presque  Isle,  on  the  lands  reserved  at  that  place  for 
the  use  of  the  state.  Nothing  appears  to  have  been 
done  in  pursuance  of  this  act;  and  in  April,  1795, 
another  act  was  passed,  authorizing  the  Governor  to 
appoint  commissioners  for  the  purpose.  Andrew  Ellt- 
cott,  with  others,  were  designated  to  survey  and  lay 
out  a  town  at  Presque  Isle,  to  be  called  "Erie."  It 
seems  that,  even  at  that  early  day,  magnificent  antici 
pations  were  formed  of  the  importance  and  growth  of 
this  place,  and  room  enough  was  given  to  gratify  the 
largest  expectations.  The  commissioners  were  directed 
to  survey  and  lay  out  one  thousand  six  hundred  acres 
for  town  lots,  and  three  thousand  four  hundred  acres 
for  out-lots.  The  town  thus  laid  out  was  divided  into 
three  sections,  called  the  first,  second,  and  third  sec 
tions  of  the  town  of  Erie,  the  whole  fronting  three 
miles  on  the  Bay.  The  first  section,  with  a  sprinkling 
6 


122  HISTORICAL    ACCOUNT    OF 

in  the  second,  is  all  that  the  town  of  Erie  has  so  far 
been  able  to  occupy.  The  anticipations  of  its  early 
projectors  may  be  realized,  now  that  it  promises  to 
reap  to  the  full  the  benefit  of  modern  improvements. 
Plank  roads  are  opening  to  it  the  surrounding  country, 
and  railroads  are  connecting  it  with  the  Hudson  river 
and  with  the  city  of  New  York.  At  present,  the 
population  of  Erie  consists  of  5,800,  and  the  county 
of  forty  thousand.  Besides  the  towns  of  Erie  and 
Waterford,  on  the  north  and  south  lines  of  the  county, 
it  has  two  very  pretty  villages  of  about  one  thousand 
inhabitants  each;  North-East,  as  its  name  indicates, 
in  the  north-east  corner,  and  Girard,  on  the  western 
border. 

Just  inside  of  the  mouth  of  Presque  Isle  Bay,  and 
to  the  right  hand  coming  in,  is  a  small  sheet  of  water 
spreading  into  a  curvature  of  the  land,  or  peninsula, 
which  forms  that  side  of  the  harbor.  Vessels  running 
in  from  a  gale,  or  waiting  for  the  abatement  of  one 
•  before  putting  to  sea,  make  this  a  place  of  refuge,  and 
hence  it  is  called  "Misery  Bay."  Through  the  waters 
of  a  shoal  part  of  this  bay,  the  blackened  remains,  the 


ERIE      COUNTY,      PA.  123 

ribs  of  a  sunken  vessel  are  seen  projecting;  and  not 
far  from  her,  but  entirely  beneath  the  water,  which  is 
as  clear  as  glass,  lie  the  remains  of  another ;  and  there 
they  have  lain  for  more  than  thirty  years.  These  are 
the  remains  of  two  vessels,  associated  with  one  of  our 
most  brilliant  naval  achievements;  and  though  the 
fragments  of  their  wrecks  will  soon  be  entirely  gone, 
their  names  will  never  be  lost  while  our  history  re 
mains.  They  are  the  Lawrence,  Commodore  Perry's 
flag-ship  at  the  battle  of  Lake  Erie,  and  the  Niagara, 
to  which  he  went  in  an  open  boat,  exposed  to  the  fire 
of  the  enemy,  after  the  Lawrence  was  disabled.  Their 
history  is  a  part  of  that  of  Erie  county.  In  its  forests 
was  their  birthplace,  and  appropriately  they  lie  en 
tombed  beneath  the  transparent  waters  of  this  beauti 
ful  bay. 

The  story  of  the  battle  of  Lake  Erie  is  that  of  the 
glory  of  these  vessels.  The  fire  of  the  whole  British 
squadron  was  directed  against  the  "  Lawrence,"  Com 
modore  Perry's  flag-ship,  until  she  was  almost  a  wreck, 
and  then,  as  is  stated  in  Cooper's  "  Naval  History," 
"  Captain  Perry,  finding  himself  in  a  vessel  that  had 


124  HISTORICAL    ACCOUNT    OF 

been  rendered  nearly  useless  by  the  injury  she  had 
received,  and  which  was  dropping  out  of  the  combat, 
got  into  his  boat  and  pulled  after  the  Niagara,  on 
board  of  which  vessel  he  arrived  at  half-past  two.  Soon 
after,  the  colors  of  the  Lawrence  were  hauled  down, 
that  vessel  being  literally  a  wreck. 

"  The  manner  in  which  the  Lawrence  was  cut-up, 
being  almost  without  an  example  in  naval  warfare.  It 
is  understood,  that  when  Captain  Perry  left  her,  she 
had  but  one  gun  on  her  starboard  side,  or  that  on 
which  she  was  engaged,  which  could  be  used,  and 
that  gallant  officer  is  said  to  have  aided  in  firing  it,  in 
person,  the  last  time  it  was  discharged.  Of  her  crew, 
22  were  killed  and  61  were  wounded,  most  of  the 
latter  severely.  When  Captain  Perry  left  her,  there 
remained  on  board  but  fifteen  sound  men. 

"  Although  much  has  been  justly  said  of  the  man 
ner  in  which  the  Bon  Homme  Richard  and  the  Essex 
were  injured,  neither  of  these  ships  suffered,  relatively, 
in  a  degree  proportioned  to  the  Lawrence.  Distin 
guished  as  were  the  two  former  vessels,  for  the  in 
domitable  resolution  with  which  they  stood  the 


ERIE      COUNTY,     PA.  125 

destructive  fire  directed  against  them,  it  did  not  sur 
pass  that  manifested  on  board  the  Lawrence." 

Of  the  Niagara  it  is  stated,  "  At  this  critical  mo 
ment,  (when  the  victory  was  thought  to  have  been 
with  the  English,)  the  Niagara  came  steadily  down, 
within  half  pistol-shot  of  the  enemy,  standing  between 
the  Chippeway  and  Lady  Prevost  on  one  side,  and 
the  Detroit,  Queen  Charlotte,  and  Hunter  on  the  other. 
In  passing,  she  poured  in  her  broadsides,  starboard 
and  larboard,  ranged  ahead  of  the  ships,  luffed  athwart 
their  bo\v»,  and  continued  delivering  a  close  and  deadly 
fire.  The  shrieks  from  the  Detroit  told  that  the  tide 
of  battle  had  turned," 

Having  separated  the  individuality  of  the  Lawrence 
and  the  Niagara  from  the  general  action  in  which 
they  were  engaged,  it  will  now  be  proper,  as  one  of 
the  historical  incidents  of  Erie  county,  to  trace  the 
difficulties  through  which  they  were  called  into  exist 
ence,  and  carried  into  the  battle  which  mado  them  so 
glorious.  They  were  built  in  and  launched  from  the 
mouth  of  a  small  ravine  on  the  western  side  of  the 
town  of  Erie. 


126  HISTORICAL     ACCOUNT    OF 


The  following  account  of  the  building  and  arming 
of  these  vessels  is  in  the  words  of  Captain  Daniel 
Dobbins,  at  this  time  an  aged  and  most  worthy  resi 
dent  of  Erie.  He  was  then  a  sailing  master  in  the 
navy,  and  commanded  the  "  Ohio,"  one  of  Perry's 
squadron,  but  which,  having  been  sent  to  Erie  for 
supplies,  was  not  in  the  action : 

"On  the  27th  of  December,  1810,  Commodore 
Chauncey  and  Mr.  Eckford  arrived,  and  gave  farther 
instructions  to  prepare  timber  for  the  two  brigs.  In 
February,  Mr.  Noah  Brown  arrived  out,  with  a  party 
of  carpenters;  and  in  March,  Captain  Perry  arrived; 
and  by  May  the  fleet  was  in  a  great  state  of  forward 
ness.  There  being  no  arms  of  any  kind,  except  a  few 
dilapidated  muskets,  at  this  point,  Captain  Perry  kept 
me  employed  in  transporting  guns,  etc.,  from  Buffalo, 
by  water  in  boats,  and  by  land  in  wagons.  On  the 
6th  day  of  April,  I  arrived  at  Cattaraugus  from  Buf 
falo,  on  the  ice,  with  six  teams;  one  wagon,  loaded 
with  a  gun  weighing  thirty-two  hundred,  arriving  at 
Erie  on  the  eleventh.  This  gun  of  thirty-two  hun 
dred  was  the  first  piece  of  ordnance  for  the  defense 


ERIE      COUNTY,     PA.  127 

of  the  fleet  then  building,  except  two  three-pound 
field-pieces  borrowed  from  the  state,  and  they  without 
any  shot.  All  the  long  guns  were  brought  from  New 
York  city,  and  the  short  carronades  from  Washington 
City.  They  were  all  transported  by  wagons;  those 
from  New  York  via  Buffalo,  and  those  from  Wash 
ington  via  Pittsburgh.  The  shot  was  principally  cast 
at  Pittsburgh;  the  rigging  came  mostly  from  New 
York;  the  heavy  anchors  from  Philadelphia,  and  the 
small  from  Pittsburgh.  Fine  oakum  was  not  to  be 
had,  and  we  were  compelled  to  calk  them  with  '  rope- 
maker's  oakum.' " 

Captain  Perry  having  brought  the  remaining  ves 
sels  of  his  squadron  into  Presque  Isle  Bay,  was  there 
blockaded  by  the  British,  until  the  prospect  of  roast 
beef  and  plum  pudding  drew  John  Bull  from  his 
watch.  Having  received  an  invitation  to  dine  in  Can 
ada,  at  the  town  of  Dover,  the  British  fleet  departed 
on  the  festive  enjoyment.  This  was  Friday,  August 
2d;  two  days  afterward,  on  Sunday,  Captain  Perry 
commenced  the  operation  of  getting  his  squadron  out 
of  the  harbor.  There  were  but  seven  feet  water  on  tho 


128  HISTORICAL     ACCOUNT     OF 

bar,  and  the  brigs,  the  Lawrence  and  the  Niagara, 
drew  more  than  this  water.  The  guns  of  the  Law 
rence  and  Niagara,  loaded  and  shotted,  were  taken  out 
and  landed  on  the  beach.  Beams  were  run  through 
the  forward  and  after  ports,  and  rested  on  scows* 
sunken  to  the  water's  edge ;  the  beams,  or  timbers, 
were  then  blocked  up  on  these  foundations,  and  the 
water  being  pumped  out  of  the  scows,  the  vessels 
were  lifted  over  the  bar.  Continuing  the  narrative  of 
Captain  Dobbins,  he  says :  "  We  had  succeeded  so  far, 
that  day,  as  to  get  the  Lawrence  and  one  or  two  of 
the  smaller  vessels  over,  when,  on  the  following  morn 
ing,  the  blockading  squadron  hove  in  sight.  The  Ni 
agara  was  on  the  bar,  with  all  her  guns  on  shore ;  but 
it  so  happened  that  the  wind  was  in  such  a  direction 
that  the  Lawrence,  tending  to  the  wind,  headed  the 
same  way  as  the  Niagara."  The  enemy  was  deceived 
by  this  circumstance,  and  did  not  know  that  the  Ni 
agara  was  fast  on  the  bar ;  the  foremost  ship  laid  her 
maintopsail  to  the  mast,  and  after  exchanging  signals, 
bore  up  and  stood  off.  Captain  Perry  immediately  ap 
plied  to  officers  of  the  army,  and  obtained  a  detachment 


ERIE      COUNTi',      I' A.  129 

of  infantry,  by  the  aid  of  which  he  got  the  fleet 
all  over,  mounted  the  guns,  and  sailed  in  pursuit  of 
the  enemy  that  night.  This  account  is  a  little  more 
detailed  than  that  in  Cooper's  history,  and  also  differs 
as  to  the  vessel  on  the  bar.  Captain  Dobbins  says 
that  it  was  the  Niagara,  and  not  the  Lawrence.  This, 
however,  is  of  no  moment. 

The  result  of  the  first  duty  of  these  ships  is  well 
known,  and  is  briefly  summed  up  in  that  memorablo 
dispatch,  "We  have  met  the  enemy,  and  they  are 
ours."  Besides  the  wrecks  of  the  Niagara  and  Law 
rence,  in  Misery  Bay,  the  citizens  of  Erie  have  a  more 
animated  and  noisy  memento  of  the  battle  of  Lake 
Erie,  in  the  bell  which  swings  in  the  belfry  of  the 
shabby  old  brick  court-house.  This,  which  now  marks 
the  time  for  republicans,  and  calls  them  to  their  pub 
lic  assemblages,  is  the  same  which  tolled  the  watches 
on  board  the  Queen  Charlotte,  the  flag- ship  of  the 
British  squadron. 

Going  back  to  the  commencement  of  the  commer 
cial  navy  which  now  floats  upon  the  waters  of  Lake 

Erie,  we  find  that  the  first  vessel  built  on  the  American 
6* 


ii  1  b  T  O  11  I  C  A  L     AGO  O  U  N  T     O  F 


side  of  the  Lake  was  built  in  this  county,  near  the 
town  of  Erie.  This  was  the  sloop  "  Good  Intent,"  of 
forty  tons,  built  by  Captain  William  Lee,  about  the 
year  1795.  In  1798,  a  person  by  the  name  of  Beebe 
built  a  sloop,  called  the  Washington;  and  in  1800 
another,  called  the  Harlequin.  Soon  after  the  com 
mencement  of  the  war,  every  merchant  vessel  had  dis 
appeared  from  the  Lake. 

The  first  improvement,  for  deepening  the  channel, 
was  by  the  appropriation  of  ten  thousand  dollars,  by 
the  state,  in  1822.  In  1824,  the  general  government 
appropriated  thirty  thousand  dollars  for  the  improve 
ment  of  the  harbor,  and  General  Bernard  designed 
the  plan  of  the  works.  The  old  channel  was  very 
crooked,  and  had  but  four  and  a  half  feet  water,  and 
was  therefore  abandoned.  At  the  time  the  present 
piers  were  erected  there  was  only  two  and  a  half  feet 
water  where  the  channel  now  runs.  A  great  increase 
was  given  to  the  business  of  this  locality  by  the  con 
struction  of  the  Pittsburgh  and  Erie  canal. 

The  object  of  this  little  paper  has  been  more  to  col 
lect  those  events  and  incidents  associated  with  the 


(JO  UN  TV,       1'A. 


history  of  Eric  county,  or  of  general  interest  from  their 
nature,  rather  than  to  follow'out  minutely  every  trans 
action  of  interest  only  to  this  particular  section;  and 
I  have  been  instigated  to  do  so  by  an  inclination  to 
contribute  what  little  may  be  in  my  power  to  the  de 
signs  and  purposes  of  the  Historical  Society  of  my 
native  state  and  city ;  and  I  make  the  present  offering 
as  an^ovidence  more  of  my  wish  than  my  ability  to  be 
useful. 


PRACTICAL   REFLECTIONS 


'-P\j(fioi)  of  ii|e  H«  §. 


THE  GROG  RATlOiN  OF  THE  U.  S.  MVY. 


"  Give  Jack  his  Grog,"  it  is  reported,  was  an  ex 
clamation  heard  upon  the  floor  of  the  House  of  Rep 
resentatives,  just  as  the  final  vote  was  taken  during 
the  last  Congress,  and  which  vote  rejected  the  propo 
sition  to  abolish  the  Grog  Ration  of  the  United  States 
Navy.  The  exclamation  and  the  vote  were  most  prob 
ably  the  impulse  of  a  generous  feeling,  and  arose  from 
a  popular,  though  false,  impression  of  "Jack's"  char 
acter.  Romance  writers  and  poets  have  seemed  dis 
posed  to  eudow  sailors  with  certain  qualities  of  charac 
ter,  independent  of  the  natural  influences  moulding 
human  nature ;  and  popular  opinion  has  seemed  wil 
ling  to  tolerate  gross  propensities  and  vices  in  men  of 
this  class  on  account  of  the  virtues,  not  belonging  so 
extensively  to  mankind  in  general,  which  is  attributed 


lot)  THE     GUOG     KAT1ON 


to  thorn  by  the  popular  imagination.  Boldness,  reck 
lessness,  generosity,  are  among  the  supposed  peculiar! 
ties  of  seamen  as  a  body,  and  for  these  sensuality, 
ungoverned  impulses,  low  appetites,  and  a  disregard 
for  rule  and  order,  are  to  be  tolerated  and  justified. 
If  the  supposed  peculiarities  really  existed,  and  were 
really  virtues,  it  may  fairly  be  questioned  whether  they 
offer  a  sufficient  compensation  for  the  outrages  upon 
morality  and  order  consequent  upon  the  tolerated 
vices, 

The  popular  impression  respecting  nautical  charac 
ter  and  the  indulgence  with  which  its  irregularities 
are  regarded,  do  much  to  keep  up  the  affectation  of 
peculiarity  in  the  public  eye,  by  men  who,  under  other 
influences,  would  have  no  disposition  to  exhibit  an 
assumed  recklessness,  nor  to  descend  to  low  vice.  The 
sailor,  during  his  short  sojourns  ashore,  is  on  exhibi 
tion —  he  is  only  dramatizing  the  part  allotted  to  him 
by  public  expectation.  The  man,  to  be  seen  in  his 
true  character,  and  out  of  his  stage  costume,  must  be 
studied  in  his  ordinary  and  every-day  life  on  ship 
board. 


OF     T  HE     U.    8.    NAVY.  13? 

In  the  prosecution  of  his  duty,  the  writer  has  been 
brought  into  much  and  intimate  association  with  sea 
men  on  ship-board,  and  he  has  found  them  to  be  sel 
fish,  narrow  and  base  in  proportion  to  their  devotion 
to  animal  indulgence  and  degrading  vices;  to  be 
equally  with  other  men*obedient  to  degrading  or  ele 
vating  influences,  and  to  be  trustworthy  in  "proportion 
as  they  obey  the  latter.  It  is. well  known  to  officers, 
that  when  a  special  duty  is  to  be  performed,  requiring 
confidence  to  be  reposed  in  those  to  whom  it  is  en 
trusted,  such,  for  instance,  as  taking  care  of  the  sick, 
that  if  possible  those  are  selected  who  have  characters 
for  sobriety,  discretion  and  prudence,  above  that  which 
is  usually  attributed  by  popular  prejudice  to  sailors. 

The  time  is  only  passing  away  when  to  be  even  an 
officer  of  any  marine  service  it  was  thought  almost 
necessary  to  be  what  would  characterize  the  citizen  as 
a  blackguard ;  and  it  is  a  proud  and  happy  reflection 
that  the  individuals  composing  the  commercial  and  gov 
ernment  marine  of  the  United  States,  have  more  than 
any  other  elevated  the  character  of  their  pursuit.  In 
the  commercial  marine,  where  there  are  no  legislative 


138  THE     GROO     RATION 

obstacles  counteracting  the  elevating  influences  of 
our  institutions,  this  improvement  is  more  marked ; 
and  it  is  not  an  insignificant  fact,  that  with  increased 
respectability,  the  American  merchant  sailor  abandons 
the  external  badges  of  his  calling.  After  his  voyage 
is  made  or  his  day's  work  is  done,  you  meet  him  in 
the  garb  and  with  the  manners  of  any  other  respect 
able  citizen.  This  goes  to  show  that  there  is  nothing 
in  his  calling  to  individualize  him  or  to  remove  him 

O 

from  the  influences  which  affect  other  men ;  nothing 
to  endow  him  with  especial  good  qualities  and  nothing 
to  entitle  him  to  the  indulgence  of  bad;  and  conse 
quently  a  terrible  responsibility  rests  upon  those  who, 
in  the  spirit  of  blind  indulgence,  cry  "  Give  Jack  his 
grog."  Upon  this  principle  our  national  ships  were 
once  legitimated  brothels,  and  in  foreign  ports,  com 
manding  officers,  who  claimed  to  be  respectable  men 
when  at  home,  thought  they  did  no  more  than  right 
by  filling  their  vessels  with  prostitutes  and  facilitating 
open,  general  and  disgusting  licentiousness.  Thanks 
to  the  moral  sense  of  the  community,  we  have  reached 
a  step  above  this  degradation,  and  there  is  hope  that 


OF     THE     U.    8.    NAVY.  139 


"Jack"  may  yet  be  elevated  above  the  necessity  for 


If,  then,  there  is  nothing  in  the  character  of  the 
sailor  which  protects  him  from  the  influences  which 
are  found  to  be  demoralizing  in  men  generally,  and 
nothing  which  gives  him  the  right  to  demoralization, 
there  must,  it  would  be  supposed,  exist  some  good 
reasons  for  exposing  him  to  so  dangerous  and  destruc 
tive  a  habit  as  the  repeated  daily  exhibition  of  ardent 
spirits;  rousing  his  passions  and  exciting  and  inflaming 
his  physical  and  moral  temperament.  Can  such  rea 
sons  be  found?  All  impartial  observation,  and  all 
established  physical  laws  show  that  they  can  not.  The 
grog  ration  neither  contributes  to  the  strength  of  the 
body,  nor  preserves  it  from  the  influences  of  cold  or 
heat.  It  diminishes  the  ability  and  the  disposition 
to  labor;  all  of  which  facts  have  been  established  by 
close  and  accurate  observation,  as  well  as  deduced  from 
natural  laws. 

In  a  most  scientific  and  impartial  paper  on  the 
"Physiological  effects  of  Alcoholic  Drinks,''  published 
in  the  British  and  Foreign  Medical  Review  for  October, 


140  THE     GROG     K  ATI  ON 

1847,  the  writer,  Dr.  Carpenter,  an  eminent  physi 
ologist,  says: 

"In  the  exercise  of  our  duty  as  cool-judging  critics, 
we  now  propose  to  inquire,  in  the  first  place,  into  the 
present  state  of  our  knowledge  as  to  the  physiological 
action  of  alcohol  on  the  human  body;  next  to  con 
sider  how  far  the  results  of  the  comparative  experience 
of  those  who  make  habitual  but  moderate  use  of  fer 
mented  liquors,  and  of  those  who  entirely  abstain  from 
them,  under  a  variety  of  circumstances,  warrants  the 
assertion  that  total  abstinence  is  invariably,  or  nearly 
so,  compatible  with  perfect  health,  or  is  even  more 
favorable  to  health  than  habitual  but  moderate  in 
dulgence." 

The  writer  then  goes  on  to  show  by  a  body  of  con 
clusive  scientific  evidence  that,  from  the  laws  of  animal 
chemistry,  alcoholic  drinks  can  contribute  nothing  to 
the  muscular  substance  of  the  human  body,  and  refers 
to  the  practical  application  of  this  fact  among  men 
whose  success  depends  upon  the  development  of 


OF     THE     U.    8.    NAVY.  141 

muscular  power.  uln  the  preparation  of  the  body  for 
feats  of  strength,  the  more  experienced  trainers  either 
forbid  the  use  of  fermented  liquors  altogether,  or  allow 
but  a  very  small  quantity  to  be  taken." 

Animal  Chemistry  also  shows  that  alcohol,  although 
it  may  temporarily  stimulate  the  nervous  system,  is 
not  necessary  to  the  supply  of  nervous  matter;  and 
so  far  from  being  useful  "  to  keep  the  cold  out,"  its 
being  taken  into  the  system  retards  the  evolution t>f 
animal  heat.  Having  set  forth  these  facts  and  princi 
ples,  Dr.  Carpenter  remarks : 

"The  inference  to  which  we  are  thus  conducted  by 
physiological  reasoning,  instead  of  being  negatived  by 
general  experience,  (as  it  is  commonly  supposed  to  be,) 
is  fully  confirmed  by  it.  The  Esquimaux,  Greenland- 
ers,  and  other  inhabitants  of  the  coldest  regions  of  the 
globe,  effectually  maintain  their  animal  heat  by  tho 
large  consumption  of  fatty  matter ;  and  whatever  may 
be  the  temporary  effect  of  an  alcoholic  draught,  wo 
believe  that  all  arctic  and  antarctic  voyagers  agree 
that  continued  resistance  to  cold  is  most  effectually 


142  THE     GROG     RATION 


maintained  without  alcohol,  or  at  any  rate  with  u 
much  smaller  quantity  of  it  than  is  commonly  sup 
posed  necessary.  A  very  striking  proof  of  this  is 
afforded  by  the  arrangements  recently  made  for  the 
overland  arctic  expedition,  on  which  the  best  authori 
ties  have  of  course  been  consulted  by  government. 

"In  the  programme  of  these  arrangements,  it  is  ex 
pressly  stated  that  no  fermented  liquors  are  to  be  used 
by  the  parties  who  proceed  upon  it.  We  have  heard 
many  of  the  now  almost  extinct  race  of  stage-coach 
men,  who  had  been  induced  to  give  up  their  former 
habit  of  imbibing  a  glass  of  ale  or  brandy  and  water 
at  every  stage,  and  to  substitute  an  occasional  cup  of 
hot  coffee  and  a  rasher  of  toasted  bacon,  speak  most 
decidedly  in  favor  of  the  superior  efficacy  of  the  latter 
system,  and  we  doubt  if  any  man  who  had  the  reso 
lution  to  adopt  it,  ever  returned  to  his  habits  except 
for  the  love  of  liquor." 

So  far  as  cold  is  concerned,  there  is  no  advantage 
derived  from  the  use  of  alcohol.  It  gives  no  increased 
ability  to  labor,  but,  on  the  contrary,  diminishes  the 


OF     THE     U.    8.    NAVY.  143 

power  to  do  so.  Much  and  carefully  collected  expe- 
perience  goes  to  show  that  "  alcoholic  liquors  ingested 
during  the  performance  of  severe  labor,  in  very  hot 
situations,  cause  a  very  rapid  and  decided  failure  of 
strength." 

Not  being  necessary  as  a  protection  against  cold, 
and  being  an  obstacle  in  the  way  of  labor,  few,  it  is 
presumed,  will  imagine  any  benefits  from  its  use  in 
warm  latitudes.  It  is  in  warm  seasons  and  climates 
that  the  wisdom  of  nature,  by  diminishing  the  appe 
tite  for  food,  proportions  its  supply  to  the  languor  and 
diminished  power  of  the  human  system.  Stimulants 
counteract  this  wholesome  provision,  and  enable  the 
stomach,  by  an  artificial,  temporary  and  delusive  vigor, 
to  oppress  the  system  by  an  amount  of  food  which  it 
neither  requires  nor  can  dispose  of,  and  the  result  is 
disease  and  death.  In  the  information  which  Dr. 
Carpenter  gives  us  upon  this  subject,  he  tells  us  that 
the  official  returns  of  the  Inspector- General  of  the 
British  army  in  Bengal,  "for  the  first  six  months  of 
1838,  show  that  the  average  daily  percentage  of  sick 
belonging  to  the  Temperance  Society  was  3f,  while 


144  THE     GROG     RATION 

the  daily  percentage  among  the  remainder  was  10 1-5." 
The  best  medical  writers  upon  tropical  climates  have 
but  one  opinion  upon  this  subject. 

Among  the  many  and  overwhelming  facts  which 
are  given,  showing  the  effects  of  alcoholic  drinks 
upon  laboring  men  in  hot  situations,  we  quote  only 
the  following: 

"In  the  manufacture  of  23  millions  of  bricks,  the 
abstinent  averaged  each  season  35,131  over  the  beer 
drinkers.  The  head  of  a  firm,  employing  between 
one  and  two  thousand  men  in  the  manufacture  of  ma 
chinery,  reports  that  he  allows  nothing  but  water  on 
his  premises,  and  that  in  the  summer  time  the  men 
engaged  in  the  strongest  work,  such  as  strikers  to  the 
heavy  forges,  drink  water  very  copiously.  In  general, 
the  men  who  drink  water  are  really  more  active,  do 
more  work,  and  are  more  healthy  than  the  workmen 
who  drink  fermented  liquors.  The  same  testimony  is 
adduced  from  large  numbers  of  laborers  in  harvest 
fields,  whose  work  for  a  succession  of  years  has  been 
carefully  compared  with  that  of  those  using  stimulants, 


OF     THE     U.    S.    NAVY.  145 


and  the  conclusion  is  very  much  in  favor  of  the  absti 
nent  workman  both  as  regards  the  amount  of  work 
and  the  condition  of  the  laborer,  and  the  economy  of 
the  work,  allowing  compensation  for  the  drink  which 
had  been  relinquished." 

In  this  article  there  is  not  space,  nor  is  it  perhaps 
necessary  to  detail  the  immense  array  of  evidence  in 
favor  of  abstinence  brought  forward  from  forges, 
foundries,  glass  and  gas  works,  and  other  laborious 
pursuife ;  but  the  following  is  so  appropriate  to  the 
subject  of  this  paper  that  it  must  not  be  omitted : 

"  A  vessel,  on  her  passage  from  I^Tew  South  Wales 
to  England  sprung  a  leak,  and  the  continued  labor  at 
the  pumps  of  the  crew,  officers  and  passengers,  was 
necessary  during  the  remainder  of  the  passage,  three 
months,  to  keep  her  afloat.  At  first,  the  men  were 
greatly  fatigued  at  the  termination  of  their  "  spell "  at 
the  pumps;  and  after  drinking  their  allowance  of 
grog,  would  "  turn  in  "  without  taking  a  proper  sup 
ply  of  nourishment.  The  consequence  was,  that  their 


146  THE     GROG     RATION 

vigor  was  decidedly  diminishing,  and  their  feeling 
of  fatigue  of  course  increasing,  as  our  physiological 
knowledge  would  lead  us  to  expect.  Coffee  and 
Cocoa  were  substituted  for  the  grog — a  pot  mess  of 
these  beverages  being  provided,  with  biscuit  and  meat 
at  the  conclusion  of  every  watch.  The  consequence 
was,  that  the  men  felt  inclined  for  a  good  meal  off  the 
latter,  their  vigor  returned,  their  fatigue  diminished, 
and  after  twelve  weeks  of  incessant  and  severe  labor, 
(with  no  interval  longer  than  four  hours,)  the  ship  was 
brought  into  port  with  all  on  board  of  her  in  as  good 
condition  as  they  had  ever  been  in  their  lives." 

If  then  the  use  of  alcoholic  drink  renders  the  hu 
man  frame  more  susceptible  to  cold  in  cold  climates, 
brings  upon  it  disease  and  death  in  warm  climates, 
imparts  neither  muscular  nor  nervous  matter,  and 
unfits  the  system  for  continued  labor,  why  should  it 
be  continued,  even  though  it  brought  no  other  evils  ? 
But  are  these  impairments  and  diminutions  of  useful 
ness  all  its  effects  ? 

There  being  no  good  reason  for  the  retention  of  the 


OF     THE     U.    S.    NAVY.  147 


grog  ration,  the  inconveniences  and  insecurity,  to 
which  it  subjects  a  ship's  company,  would  be  suffi 
cient  motive  for  its  abolition.  The  space  now  devoted 
to  the  spirit  stores  could  be  given  to  the  increased 
accommodation  of  the  ship's  company,  or  to  the  stor 
age  of  provision,  water  and  wood.  For  a  cruise  of 
six  months  a  frigate  carries  three  thousand  gallons  of 
whisky;  a  sloop  of  war  carries  twelve  hundred.  The 
risk  of  fire  would  be  diminished  by  the  removal  of  so 
much  inflammable  matter,  and  the  ship  relieved  from 
the  many  annoying  precautions  necessary  to  protect 
it  from  this  danger.  For  instance,  when  the  spirit 
room  of  a  vessel  is  about  being  filled,  the  alcoholic 
vapor  pervades  all  the  apartments ;  she  smells  like  a 
distillery,  and  'it  becomes  a  necessary  precaution  to 
extinguish  the  lights  and  fires.  In  the  larger  ships, 
the  spirit  room  is  in  the  vicinity  of  the  apartments 
of  officers,  and  all  these  being  below  the  reach  of  day 
light,  renders  the  constant  use  of  candles  necessary. 
Every  time  the  spirit  room  is  opened,  six  times  a  day, 
once  to  take  out,  and  once  to  return  the  grog  tub  at 
each  serving,  the  occupation  of  the  inmates  of  these 


148  THE     GROG     RATION 

apartments  is  interrupted  by  the  extinction  of  the 
lights.  This  would  of  course  not  be  an  inconvenience 
to  be  complained  of,  only  as  an  attendant  upon  a  pro 
vision  not  only  unnecessary,  but  useless  and  highly 
injurious;  but  that  it  is  no  slight  annoyance  will  be 
readily  appreciated  by  those  in  the  habit  of  any  con 
tinuous  useful  occupation  or  study. 

But  we  will  proceed  to  notice  more  positive  evils. 
Long  before  the  temperance  spirit  exercised  the  influ 
ence  which  at  present  belongs  to  it,  and  before  the 
idea  of  abolishing  the  spirit  ration  was  much  debated 
or  generally  entertained,  the  writer  was  in  the  habit  of 
observing  the  general  effects  upon  the  ship's  company 
of  the  three  times  served  daily  allowance  of  grog,  and 
it  early  led  him  to  doubt  the  advantages  of  this  long- 
established  usage.  After  taking  their  grog,  and  par 
ticularly  that  portion  served  before  the  morning  meal, 
the  faces  of  the  men  are  seen  to  be  flushed  and  turgid, 
their  tongues  voluble  and  their  tempers  irritable.  Of 
this  evident  condition  of  artificial  morbid  excitement, 
the  stomach  and  digestive  organs  participate,  and  the 
first  effect  is  the  ingestion  of  an  unnecessary  amount 


OF     THE     U.    S.    NAVY.  149 


of  food ;  and  of  this  excitement  and  overloading  the 
system  the  consequences  must  be  the  generation  of  a 
variety  of  diseases,  enfeebling  the  service  and  charging 
the  government  hospitals  with  a  heavy  burden  of 
chronic  invalids.  Let  gentlemen  who  are  not  strictly 
abstinent  men,  but  who  are  in  the  occasional  habit 
of  taking  a  glass  of  spirit  and  water,  ask  themselves 
what  would  be  the  effect  upon  their  habits  and  health, 
of  taking  a  glass  of  spirit  and  water  three  times  regu 
larly  every  day,  and  beginning  before  breakfast  ?  Let 
them  ask  themselves  what  would  be  their  opinion  of 
the  habits  of  an  acquaintance  whom  they  saw  devoted 
to  such  a  custom  ?  The  expenses  incident  to  the  dis 
ease  generated,  directly  or  indirectly,  by  the  grog  ra 
tion,  would  render  its  abolition  a  measure  of  economy, 
even  with  a  substitution  of  some  other  article,  and  an 
increase  of  seamen's  wages. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  enter  into  an  argument  to  show 
that  the  grog  ration  must  be  promotive  of  intempe 
rance,  for  should  any  dispute  this,  it  is  hardly  to  be 
supposed  that  any  argument  would  convince  them. 
No  justification  of  so  dangerous  a  usage  is  found  in 


150  THE     GROG     RATION 

the  facts  that  it  is  optional  with  each  person  to  draw 
grog  or  not ;  that  it  is  a  matter  of  volition  whether  he 
become  a  drunkard  or  not,  and  that  intoxication  is 
followed  by  its  appropriate  punishment.  Men  are  so 
much  under  the  influence  of  surrounding  circumstances 
that  the  government  cannot  be  permitted  to  avoid 
its  responsibilities  by  such  pleas  as  these.  In  civil  life, 
it  is  a  matter  of  every  day  observation  that  men  whose 
habits  are  not  fixed,  use  stimulating  drinks  or  not, 
according  to  the  society  in  which  they  happen  to  be 
at  the  time.  But  when  whisky  is  legitimated  and 
justified  by  statutes  and  dignified  by  formalities  and 
ceremonies,  its  dangerous  power  is  entirely  lost  sight 
of,  its  use  becomes  respectable,  and  one  of  the  preserv 
atives  of  good  habits  —  shame  for  bad  —  is  removed. 
Observation  will  show  that  the  habits  of  >en,  as  re 
gards  intemperance,  will  be  greatly  influenced  jy  the 
views  entertained  by  the  officers  under  whom  t  ley 
serve.  Unfortunately  there  are  officers  who,  enter 
taining  the  erroneous  notion  that  sailors  are  an  excep 
tion  to  human  nature,  honestly  believe  and  encourage 
the  idea  that  true  sailors  must  get  drunk  and  must  be 


OF     THE     U.    S.    NAVY.  151 

flogged.  A  commander  of  one  of  our  ships  of  war, 
upon  its  being  reported  to  him  that  a  certain  seaman 
had  returned  from  a  visit  to  the  shore  sober,  observed 
openly — "Well,  he  must  be  a  d — d  rascal,  and  will 
run  the  first  chance."  In  that  ship  the  punishments 
for  intoxication,  and  its  consequences,  were  most  fre 
quent;  the  crime  and  the  flogging  were  not  looked 
upon  as  being  disgraceful,  but  as  a  natural  circum 
stance  incident  to  the  service.  The  very  men  who, 
under  such  influences,  felt  it  to  be  right  and  proper  to 
get  drunk,  when  occasion  offered,  being  brought  under 
the  direction  of  officers  who  manifested,  by  a  manner 
of  disgust  and  contempt,  their  opinion  of  the  low 
position  in  the  scale  of  humanity  occupied  by  the 
drunkard,  had  their  pride  aroused,  and  in  some  instances 
voluntarily  reformed  themselves.  This  shows  that 
the  sailor  is  susceptible  of  elevation  of  character,  even 
under  unfavorable  circumstances. 

Under  the  official  sanction,  many  go  to  the  grog 
tub,  who  under  other  circumstances  would  blush  to 
be  seen  there.  Should  a  youth,  new  to  the  service, 
in  obedience  to  principles  which  have  been  inculcated 


.152  THE     GROG     RATION 

upon  him,  or  to  a  proper  caution  and  prudence,  avoid 
the  tub  around  which  his  associates  are  crowded,  the 
grog  laws  find  many  active  disciples  to  aid  their  influ 
ence  in  his  conversion.  The  influence  of  numbers 
and  example  is  against  his  continued  resistance ;  he  is 
hunted  by  the  insults,  jeers  and  censure  of  those  to 
whom  his  abstinence  is  a  tacit  reproof,  and  against 
the  proverbial  tyranny  of  a  safe  majority  —  there  is  no 
refuge,  and  the  grog-drinking  crowd,  as  at  the  roll  of 
the  drum  they  gather  around  the  tub,  welcome  the 
reluctant  youth,  over  whose  good  sense  and  better 
resolutions  it  has  triumphed.  It  is  the  most  heartless 
tyranny  for  the  government  to  enact  punishments  for 
the  drunkard,  its  laws  and  usages  have  thus  been  edu 
cating.  Such  inconsistency  and  such  tyranny  become 
the  most  unjustifiable  cruelty  if,  as  scientific  writers 
now  assert,  intemperance  is  an  uncontrollable  physical 
and  moral  disease,  requiring  medical  treatment  rather 
than  physical  punishment. 

In  a  recent  treatise  upon  intemperance,  by  Dr.  Hills, 
of  Ohio,  it  is  asserted  that  the  habitual  drinker  is  as 
much  and  as  certainly  the  victim  of  disease  as  one 


O  if     THE     U  .    S  .    iS  A  V  Y  .  153 

with    phthisis    pulmonalis,   another    with    ascites,   or 
another  with  gangrene.     He  says: 

"I  know  not  why  we  should  thus  delay  our  ideas 
of  the  existence  of  bodily  ailment  in  this  any  more 
than  in  other  affections,  until  the  closing  scenes  of 
secondary  stages  are  developed.  In  their  contempla 
tion  we  go  back  to  the  remotest  period,  when  the 
slightest  variation  from  a  state  of  health  becomes 
manifest;  and  why  not  in  this?  If  we  do,  will  we 
not  finally  arrive  at  that  point  when,  from  the  occa 
sional  use  of  intoxicating  beverages,  a  thirst  for  more 
is  produced — a  constant  longing  for  the  repetition  of 
its  influence?  *  *  Thus  it  is  rendered  probable, 
if  not  certain,  that  the  ordinary  opinion  upon  this 
subject  as  to  cause  and  effect,  should  be  reversed.  That 
habitual  drinking  is  an  involuntary  consequence  of  dis 
eased  action,  that  may  have  been  started  by  occasional 
voluntary  libations,  is  true;  but  that  the  habit  is  a 
true  and  legitimate  consequence  and  evidence  of 
disease." 


154  THE     GROG     RATION 


Such  views  being  correct,  the  government  is  put  in 
the  position  of  disseminating  a  most  destructive  poison, 
and  then  scourging  the  backs  of  those  unfortunate 
enough  to  be  infected  by  it;  and  if  the  subject  is  still 
one  of  doubt,  worthy  of  scientific  discussion  and  in 
vestigation,  the  government  has  no  moral  right  to 
assume  the  question  settled,  and  to  blindly  take  the 
hazard  of  propagating  the  disease  or  of  punishing  its 
victims. 

It  is  not  often  that  the  victims  of  legalized  grog- 
drinking  have  the  disposition,  the  opportunity  or  the 
ability  to  testify  to  the  steps  by  which  their  ruin  has 
been  accomplished;  but  if  one  speaks,  he  utters  the 
experience  of  multitudes,  and  the  following  remarks 
made  by  a  criminal  before  a  court-martial  for  an 
offense,  the  result  of  drunkenness,  are  sufficient  in 
themselves  to  mark  the  grog  ration  with  criminality. 
They  were  furnished  the  writer  by  a  talented  and  cul 
tivated  friend,  who  was  at  the  time  an  officer  of  the 
Navy  and  member  of  the  court  before  which  the 
culprit  was  arraigned.  The  substance  only  of  the 
defense  is  given : 


OFTIIEU.    S.    NAVY.  155 


"  I  was  brought  up  in  the  county  of  ,  in   the 

State  of  .     At  the  age  of  12,  I   went  to  sea; 

shipped  in  the  service ;  rose  rapidly,  and  as  soon  as  I 
was  of  legal  age  received  the  rate  of  ordinary  seamen. 
/  never  had  tasted  liquor  until  that  time.  My  ship 
mates  persuaded  me  to  draw  my  ration.  I  did  not 
wish  to  do  so,  but  thinking  it  more  manly  and  sea  - 
manlike  to  drink  my  grog,  I  was  induced  to  do  it. 
I  forced  myself  to  swallow  the  whisky.  The  effect 
was  stupefying  and  disagreeable  in  the  extreme.  The 
other  boys  laughed  at  me.  Gradually  I  acquired  the 
taste  for  ruin.  The  first  time  I  went  on  shore,  I  got 
" mad  drunk"  Step  followed  step.  When  paid  off, 
I  gave  full  vent  to  my  new  passion.  I  was  ashamed 
to  go  home.  In  a  few  days,  plundered,  stripped  and 

beaten  half  to  death  in ,  I  shipped   again.     To 

cure  the  horrors,  I  got  drunk  on  board  of  the  receiv 
ing  ship,  was  insolent  to  the  officer  on  deck,  and  put 
in  irons.  Through  the  forbearance  of  the  officer,  I 
was  let  off  without  a  court-martial.  Nothing  can 
equal  the  misery  I  endured  while  lying  in  irons  ex 
pecting  to  be  tried  for  my  life.  I  firmly  resolved,  and 


156  THE      GROG     RATION 


most  solemnly  swore  before  God,  never  again  to  taste 
rum.  For  twenty  or  thirty  days  after  I  was  released 
from  confinement,  I  was  enabled  to  keep  my  resolu 
tion,  and  when  the  drum  tolled  for  grog,  I  would  re 
main  at  the  top  to  keep  out  of  the  way  of  temptation. 
In  an  evil  moment,  I  lingered  one  day  on  the  main 
deck,  while  the  men  were  drinking  their  rations.  I 
was  overcome.  2  drank  too.  It  was  like  pouring  oil 
on  a  fire.  I  could  no  longer  contend  with  my  appe 
tite.  I  pailed  with  all  that  I  could  dispose  of  to  pro 
cure  rum  from  shore.  The  ration  was  not  enough  for 
me.  When  I  got  to  sea,  I  was  forced  to  keep  sober, 

but  a  few  days  after  our.  passage  to  I    again 

got  liquor  enough  to  make  me  drunk,  was  mutinous, 
tried  for  my  life,  and  received  in  commutation  of  death 
one  hundred  lashes.  From  that  time  I  have  become 
more  and  more  the  slave  of  drunkenness,  and  I  now 
stand  before  this  honorable  court  a  second  time  in 
jeopardy  of  my  life.  I  have  nothing  to  say  in  my 
defense  except  what  you  have  heard.  I  throw  myself 
on  your  mercy ;  but  I  beg  you  to  reflect  upon  the 
causes  which  have  brought  me  to  my  present  miserable 


THE      U.    S.    NAVY.  157 


condition.  I  was  trained  up  to  drunkenness  by  that 
very  government  which  has  pronounced  the  crime 
of  which  itself  is  the  cause  a  high  offense.  I  am  to 
be  punished  for  violating  laws  which,  with  one  hand, 
tempt  and  lead  to  sin,  and  with  the  other  prepare  a  hal 
ter  for  their  own  victim.  Give  the  sailor  rum,  make  him 
a  drunkard  from  his  youth  up,  and  when  you  have  fully 
confirmed  him  in  his  evil  habits,  then  hany  him  for 
doing  the  very  act  toward  which  the  whole  system  of 
education  necessarily  tends.  Before  God,  I  solemnly 
believe  and  honestly  assert  that  I  should  never  have 
been  guilty  of  the  offense  for  which  I  expect  to  suffer 
had  there  never  been  such  a  place  as  a  spirit-room, 
and  such  a  destroying  poison  as  it  deals  out.  At  the 
door  of  the  government  will  be  my  blood.  I  leave 
myself  in  your  hands.  Your  duty  is  to  make  me  an 
example,  and  I  wish  that  I  shall  be  justly  dealt  with. 
I  should  be  willing  to  suffer  the  utmost  if  I  thought 

'^  O 

that  mv  sad  case  would  be  the  means  of  banishing 

-'  O 

whisky  from  among  my  ship-mates."     This  man  was 
sentenced  to lashes. 


158  THE      GHOG     RATION" 


The  evil  effects  of  the  grog  ration  are  not  limited 
to  the  men.  By  inducing  degrading  habits  in  the 
mass  of  the  naval  community,  some  of  this  unhappy 
influence  must  be  extended  to  the  officers  themselves. 

The  importance  and  interest  of  their  nautical  and 
military  duties  become  almost  secondary  to  the  neces 
sity  of  watching  and  guarding  a  drunken  crew.  Often 
are  they  obliged  to  prowl  through  sinks  of  iniquity 
in  search  of  men  who,  in  drunken  recklessness,  have 
abandoned  their  duty  and  broken  their  laws;  and 
often,  too,  are  their  men  seen  wounded,  bloody  and 
dirty,  conducted  in  charge  of  their  officers  through  the 
streets  of  foreign  cities.  Officers  in  constant  contact 
with  such  beings  must,  to  a  great  degree,  lo«e  their 
respect  for  their  kind,  and  will  almost  involuntarily 
descend  to  a  language  and  manner  discreditable  to 
themselves  and  unworthy  of  their  position.  Losing 
sight  of  the  influences  which  have  produced  such 
effects,  they  learn  to  regard  the  sailor  as  a  being  sui 
(/eneris,  and  below  the  elevating  influences  to  which 
humanity  is  obedient.  An  intelligent  and  efficient 
officer,  one  who  appreciates  all  the  mischief  of  the 


U  b'     T  11  K      II .    fl  .    JM  A  V  Y.  150 

grog  ration,  in  speaking  of  this  subject  remarked,  that 
his  most  constant  and  harassing  duties  were  those 
which  imposed  upon  him  the  necessity  of  playing  the 
part  of  constable  and  jailor  to  a  drunken  crew.  If 
the  grog  ration  promotes  drunkenness,  (and  who  can 
doubt  it,)  then  is  the  grog  ration  mainly  responsible 
for  these  disgusting  scenes.  Its  abolition  would  not, 
probably,  put  an  end  at  once  to  all  this  mischief,  be 
cause  the  service  has  yet  to  recover  from  all  the  evil 
which  has  been  done ;  but  so  long  as  the  grog  ration 
is  continued,  there  is  no  commencement  of  improve 
ment,  and  no  hope  for  it;  but  when  it  is  terminated, 
there  is  much  reason  to  believe  that  such  an  elevation 
and  tone  will  be  given  to  the  service,  that  men  dis 
posed  to  lawlessness,  riot  and  intoxication,  men  worthy 
of  the  lash  and  needing  it,  will  be  driven  from  the 
service,  or  find  themselves  compelled  to  amend  while 
in  it,  and  officers  would  learn  to  look  upon  sailors  as 
beings  not  necessarily  associated  with  the  grog  tub, 
drunkenness  and  the  cats. 

If  the  grog  ration  contributes  nothing  to  the  power 
of  labor,  affords  no  protection  against  inclement  or 


ICO  THE      GKOCI     RATION 


exhausting  climates,  why  retain  it?  If,  on  the  con 
trary,  it  promotes  fatigue  and  exhaustion,  begets 
moral  and  physical  disease,  fosters  drunkenness,  em 
barrasses  duties,  endangers  and  annoys  ships,  leads  to 
court-martials,  fills  hospitals  and  taxes  the  government, 
degrades  men  and  officers,  why  not  at  once  abolish  it  ? 
Shall  the  government  continue  to  sanction  and  sustain 
all  these  evils?  shall  it  legitimate  obstacles  and  barriers 
lo  the  elevation  of  the  character  of  the  sailor,  rather 
than  accord  in  the  tendencies  of  our  institutions  to 
elevate  and  dignify  those  who  live  under  them  ?  Shall 
it  adapt  the  naval  service  to  the  character  of  the  re 
spectable  young  men  of  our  country,  or  shall  it  invite 
into  the  service  the  low  and  mercenary  refugees  from 
foreign  services,  and  thus  bring  our  young  men  down 
to  their  standard  ? 

The  grog  ration  and  many  of  our  usages  are  blindly 
conformed  to  the  character  of  the  British  seamen,  or 
tar,  as  novelists  and  poets  prefer  to  call  him,  without 
any  reference  to  the  different  conditions  of  the  two 
countries,  and  two  peoples. 

The  British  sailor,  however  respectable  the  individual 


OF     TilE     U.    S.    NAVY.  1(51 


may  be,  belongs  to  a  class  so  low  in  the  artificial 
scale  of  aristocratic  institutions  that  vice  can  scarcely 
place  him  socially  lowev,  and  virtue  has  no  power  to 
elevate  him  to  social  respectability.  He  is,  therefore, 
beyond  the  power  of  true  influential  principles.  We 
have  no  such  fixed  class  from  which  our  seamen  can 
come.'  Every  one  feels  that  his  respectability  and 
position  in  society  depend  very  much  upon  himself, 
and  the  American  sailor,  after  being  relieved  from  his 
obligations  to  the  service,  may  move  in  a  family  and 
social  circle  equal  to  that  of  any  other  person.  Scarcely 
any  citizen  of  the  United  States  could  enter  the  naval 
serrice,  but  who  would  be  conscious  of  some  degree 
of  family  respectability  to  be  maintained,  and,  to  their 
honor,  many  refuse  to  enter  a  service  which  inculcates 
vicious  habits  as  part  of  its  system,  and  requires  the 
relinquish ment  of  self-respect;  and  so  long  as  these 
usages  continue,  we  shall  never  have  a  Navy  worthy 
of  the  Republic.  Our  principle  should  be,  not  to 
bring  our  Navy  up  to  the  standard  of  other  Navies; 
but,  as  we  have  done  in  other  things,  up  to  the  stand 
ard  of  the  nation;  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the 


162  THE     GROG     RATION. 

thirty-first  Congress  will  begin  the  work  by  putting 
an  end  to  the  gro^  ration,  and  then  look  further  into 
this  huge  bundle  of  time-rotten  usages  and  antique 
mouldy  formalities  which  the  country  has  borne  as 
a  burden  upon  its  back  until  the  people  begin  to  ask, 
Cui  bono? 


T  11  E 


Ji)sf  [fijiic^s  of 


AN  ADDKKSS 

TVKITTSN     FOR 
THE    IRYIXG    LITERARY    INSTITUTE,  OF    THE   CITY    OF    ERIE,    FA. 


PREFACE. 


REFORM — naval  reform,  is  tlie  general  cry.  Every  rank 
and  grade  of  the  navy  calls  for  it. 

Those  who  hold  the  position  of  command  say :  there  is 
no  efficient  discipline,  and  we  have  more  trouble  with  offi 
cers  than  with  men.  Put  two  gentlemen  of  the  highest 
grade  in  the  navy  on  board  ship — one  to  command  the 
ship,  and  the  other  to  command  the  squadron  to  which  she 
belongs — and  even  though  they  both  be  men  of  good  sense, 
and  good  feeling,  the  ill-defined  position  of  each  soon  leads 
to  discord  and  dissension ;  and,  if  the  government  is  not 
burdened,  and  the  service  disgraced  by  a  court-martial, 
one  is  compelled  to  abandon  the  duty  which  has  been 
assigned  him,  and  to  return  to  his  home. 

"I  have  the  command  of  the  ship,"  says  one  captain, 
"  assigned  me  by  government,  and  your  interference  is  an 
infringement  of  my  rights."  . 

"If  that  is  your  view,"  says  the  commodore,  "I  am  but 
a  passenger  here,  and  one  of  us  had  better  go  home." 

"  Reform  !  "  cry  the  subordinate  grades  of  the  line  :  "we 
have  no  defined  rights  or  duties,  and  are  old  men  in  junior 


IV  PREFACE. 


grades,  some  of  us,  oven,  in  that  of  our  apprenticeship." 
"  Reform  !  "  cry  the  staff  corps,  "  we  grow  old  in  the  service, 
not  only  without  any  progressive  rank  to  mark  our  length 
of  service,  but  without  any  defined  rank,  to  protect  us 
against  the  assumptions  and  arrogance  natural  to  military 
power." 

Each  grade  has  the  remedy  for  the  single  defect  apparent 
to  itself,  while  almost  the  whole  country  cries  out,  in  con 
junction  with  part  of  the  navy,  "  Throw  the  grog-tub  and 
the  cats  overboard,  and  all  is  right."  This  is  sheer  quack 
ery  ;  it  is  treating  the  single  symptoms,  by  a  pretended 
panacea,  while  the  diseased  constitution  is  untouched. 

There  is  an  entire  want  of  conformity  between  the  or 
ganization  of  the  navy,  and  the  character  of  the  people  and 
country  to  which  it  belongs ;  and  sooner  or  later,  one  must 
be  brought  into  harmony  with  the  other ;  the  sooner  the 
better,  for  all  concerned. 

We  have  inconsiderately  "  put  new  wine  into  old  bot 
tles;"  and  patched  an  old  and  rotten  garment  with  new 
cloth.  We  have  put  the  new  and  elevated  energies  of  our 
people  into  the  old  forms  and  institutions  of  past  ages. 

The  remarks  of  this  lecture,  upon  the  evil  influence  of 
our  naval  institutions  must  not  be  construed  into  a  sweep 
ing  declaration,  that  every  individual  is  corrupted  by  them. 
Forms  of  government,  forms  of  religion,  despotism,  mon 
archy,  aristocracy,  Mahometanism,  may  all  be  attacked,  as 
not  the  best  institutions,  without  any  imputation  upon 
those  who  live  under,  advocate,  and  adhere  to  them.  While 
there  are  honorable,  upright,  and  intelligent  men  in  every 


PREFACE, 


grade  of  the  service,  its  organization  is  not  such,  as  to  give 
to  these  qualities  their  proper  influence  —  the  same  as  they 
would  have  in  civil  life  —  or  to  prevent  the  undue  ascen 
dency  of  those  of  imperfect  character. 

To  effect  reform  in  the  navy,  the  subject  must  be  taken 
up  by  the  people  ;  if  left  to  navy  boards,  it  is  too  apt  to  be 
lost  in  the  influence  of  preconceived  opinions.  The  gen 
eral  principles  of  naval  government,  make  too  low  an  esti 
mate  of  the  material  it  deals  with ;  there  are  not  appeals 
enough  to  man's  higher  nature.  Napoleon  is  an  authority, 
worth  listening  to,  upon  this  subject ;  he  understood  the 
matter  when  he  said, 

"Mankind  are,  in  the  end,  always  governed  by  superi 
ority  of  intellectual  qualities,  and  none  are  more  sensible 
of  this  than  the  military  profession.  When,  on  my  return 
from  Italy,  I  assumed  the  dress  of  the  institute,  and  associ 
ated  with  men  of  science,  I  knew  what  I  was  doing  ;  I  was 
sure  of  not  being  misunderstood  by  the  lowest  drummer  in 
the  army," 

This  being  the  principle,  it  is  our  duty  to  get  the  best 
ability  in  the  highest  place. 


ADDRESS. 


GENTLEMEN  OF  THE  IRVING  LITERARY  INSTITUTE. 

In  reply  to  tlie  invitation,  extended  to  me  by  your 
Society  upon  a  former  occasion,  I  had  the  honor  to 
write  you  a  lecture  upon  subjects,  in  my  opinion,  ap 
propriate  to  the  purposes  of  your  organization,  and 
being  willing,  so  far  as  lias  in  my  power,  to  contribute 
to  your  efforts  for  the  public  good,  I  again  submit  to 
you  an  essay,  which,  in  default  of  other  and  more 
competent  respondents  to  your  call,  may  aid  in  the 
accomplishment  of  your  views. 

I  have  chosen  as  the  subject  of  my  remarks,  "  THE 
NAVAL  INSTITUTIONS  OF  A  REPUBLIC-" 


170  NAVAL     INSTITUTIONS 


A  service  of  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century  in  our 
own  navy  has  afforded  me  the  opportunities  for  observ 
ing  to  some  extent,  and  reflecting  upon,  the  nature, 
peculiarities  and  wants  of  naval  institutions.  The  cor 
rectness  of  my  judgment,  and  the  feasibility  of  my 
views,  it  is  for  time  and  others  to  determine. 

Feeling  it  to  be  my  duty,  as  an  honest  citizen,  to 
communicate  to  the  people  —  the  real  owners  of  the 
navy  —  facts  which  my  official  position  has  enabled  me 
to  learn,  and  which  the  interests  of  both  navy  and 
people  demand  should  be  generally  known,  I  have 
done  that  duty  and  leave  the  matter  with  you. 

The  subject  is  one  of  great  and  varied  interest  to 
this  nation  —  of  interest  in  a  political  and  pecuniary 
point  of  view.  All  that  concerns  the  condition  and  con 
stitutional  organization  of  the  individual  states  of  this 
confederacy  is  considered  of  general  interest  ;  and  par 
ticularly  would  it  be  so,  if  there  were  any  features  of  an 
individual  state,  inconsistent  with,  or  adverse  to  our 
principles  of  republican  government 


OF    A    REPUBLIC.  171 

Your  navy  is  a  most  important  state ;  it  belongs  to 
you  all ;  it  is  limited  by  no  boundaries  short  of  the  en 
tire  world ;  it  represents  you  amid  the  gilded  thrones 
of  Europe  —  in  the  distant  isles  of  the  ocean  —  amid 
Arctic  savages  and  snows  —  and  to  all  nations  and  peo 
ples  on  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts  of  this  vast  con 
tinent.  In  a  pecuniary  point  of  view,  the  navy  claims 
the  attention  of  prudent  and  practical  men.  The 
annual  expenditure  of  this  nation  for  military  pur 
poses,  is  more  than  half  the  entire  expenditure  of  the 
government.  The  annual  expenditure  for  the  navy 
alone,  is  more  than  one-fourth  of  the  whole  national 
cost  —  including  that  of  Congress,  the  Executive,  the 
Judiciary,  Foreign  Ministers,  and  miscellaneous. 

The  annual  expense  of  your  navy  is  more  than  the 
annual  cost  of  the  six  New  England  states,  the  great 
state  of  New  York,  and  New  Jersey  together.  Then, 
surely,  such  an  institution  is  worth  your  attention ;  and 
it  is  the  duty  of  the  people  to  see  that  so  important  an 
organization  is  not  one  which  defies  the  principles  of 
our  government,  and  gives  the  lie  to  all  the  political 
theories  of  our  constitution. 


172  NAVAL   INSTITUTIONS 

The  history  of  the  navy,  or  of  any  similar  institution, 
is  not  alone  the  record  of  its  deeds,  be  they  glorious 
or  ignoble.  Its  deeper  and  more  significant  history  is 
to  be  found  by  an  inquiry  into  the  influence  it  has  had 
upon  principles ;  in  destroying  or  modifying  those  in 
existence,  or,  in  creating  new  ones ;  its  influence  upon 
human  rights,  political  institutions,  and  the  relations 
of  men  to  each  other. 

The  capture  of  an  enemy's  ship  or  squadron  is 
justly  a  subject  of  national  and  patriotic  pride ;  it  is 
enthusiastically  hailed  by  loud  huzzas,  from  one  end 
of  the  Union  to  the  other.  Let  us  beware,  lest,  amid 
the  rejoicing,  we  lose  sight  of  some  false  principle, 
stealing  upon  us  in  the  noise,  the  fire,  and  the  smoke, 
marring  the  beauty  of  republicanism,  and  corrupting 
the  purity  of  our  institutions ;  let  us  beware,  lest  the 
victory  has  a  dearer  purchase  than  blood  and  treasure, 
and  be  careful  that  the  flashing  glory  do  not  sink  into 
a  darkened  shame. 

When  history  was  written  for  the  gratification  of 
great  personages,  it  charged  upon  republics  ingrati 
tude  for  public  services.  Now,  that  history  is  being 


OF    A    REPUBLIC.  173 

written  for  the  people,  it  discovers  that  individuals  may 
value  their  services  too  highly,  and  cry  out  ingratitude, 
unless,  in  addition  to  the  just  award  of  glory,  their 
country  places  itself,  its  institutions,  and  its  fortunes  at 
their  feet.  When  people  have  permitted  their  grati 
tude  to  go  thus  far,  we  have  Caesars,  Cromwells,  and 
Napoleons.  In  like  manner,  a  grateful  nation  may, 
in  the  glory  of  an  institution,  lose  sight  of  the  increas 
ing  despotism  of  its  principles,  which,  worse  than  per 
sonal  tyranny,  live  and  grow  from  age  to  age ;  die  not 
with  the  life  of  any  individual,  but  require  either  a 
violent  convulsion,  or  years  of  labor  and  patient  per 
severance  to  loosen  their  hold. 

Under  a  monarchical  and  aristocratic  form  of  gov 
ernment,  a  navy,  like  an  army,  or  the  church,  may  be 
organized,  to  meet  two  purposes;  one,  the  service  of 
the  state,  or  the  propagation  of  the  gospel;  the  other, 
that  of  making  places  and  provision  for  the  members  of 
aristocratic  and  exclusive  classes ;  and  in  such  an  arrange 
ment,  the  rules  and  regulations  of  government  and  dis 
cipline  will  be  as  much  to  keep  up  the  prestige  of  aristo 
cracy,  as  to  affect  a  healthful  and  efficient  organization, 


174  NAVAL    INSTITUTIONS 

Very  different  should  be  the  state  of  affairs,  tinder 
a  republic.  In  it,  there  should  be  no  exclusive  classes 
to  provide  for,  and  all  its  rules  and  discipline  might  be 
concentrated  in  effecting  the  most  efficient  service  for 
the  state. 

In  this  singleness  of  object,  a  republic,  if  it  remained 
true  to  its  character,  would  have  great  advantages  over 
an  aristocracy,  in  the  creation  of  a  powerful  navy ;  and 
just  so  far  as  it  condescends  to  imitate  the  organiza 
tion  of  a  monarchical  institution,  does  it  yield  its  high 
position,  fetter  its  own  power,  and  dwarf  its  greatness ; 
it  sacrifices  the  nation,  and  national  interests,  to  indi 
viduals  and  exclusive  classes. 

The  population  of  a  republican  navy  consists  of  the 
efficient  power  of  the  crews,  or  men,  and  officers  to 
direct  and  control  it;  both,  equally  citizens  of  the 
commonwealth  which  they  serve,  in  different,  but  as 
sociated  capacities.  The  arrangements  should  be  such, 
as  would  secure  in  all  grades,  the  best  talent,  and 
mental,  and  physical  energies  which  the  country  can 
produce.  The  relations  between  these  grades,  their 
dependence,  one  upon  the  other,  should  be  just  that 


OF    A    REPUBLIC.  1  75 


which  would  best  accomplish  the  national  purpose,  for 
which  the  navy  is  organized  and  paid,  and  in  nothing 
should  the  one  be  made  tributary  to  the  personal  pride 
and  arrogance  of  the  other.  Definite  laws  should  pro 
tect  the  rights  of  the  inferior,  or  commanded  class,  and 
restrict  the  exercise  of  the  controlling  power  to  its 
legitimate  use. 

So  long  as  a  naval  establishment  observes  these  le 
gitimate  relations,  and  is  in  harmony  with,  and  sub 
ordinate  to,  the  political  institutions  of  the  country,  its 
character  will  be  both  republican  and  efficient.  But 
mark  how  stealthily,  gradually,  and  insidiously  change 
may  come  over  such  a  body,  even  if  originally  organ 
ized  upon  proper  principles.  The  class  exercising 
military  authority,  is  too  apt  to  lose  sight  of  its  true 
official  character,  representing  the  laws  of  the  land  — 
an  honorable  and  dignified  station  —  it  learns  to  feel 
that  all  the  pomp  and  parade  of  high  station  is  a  per 
sonal  tribute  to  those  who  receive  it,  and  a  distinction 
.to  them,  as  of  superior  blood  to  other  men,  with  an 
intrinsic  claim  to  higher  privileges.  From  this  error, 
it  is  an  easy  transition,  to  exact  a  blind  submission 


1  i  (j  NAVAL    INSTITUTIONS 


to  every  whim  and  caprice,  as  a  necessary  part  of  mili 
tary  subordination  and  discipline ;  to  believe  that  they 
have  no  responsibilities,  and  their  subordinates  no 
rights;  until,  finally,  it  becomes  more  than  a  vague 
idea,  that  ships  are  built,  men  paid,  and  the  navy  kept 
up,  chiefly  for  the  benefit  of  the  influential  classes  in 
the  navy.  Questions  are  considered,  not  so  much  in 
reference  to  the  interests  of  the  country,  as  in  refer 
ence  to  the  institution.  Innovation  is  dreaded,  and 
opposed,  lest  it  should  shake  exclusive  privileges.  The 
broad  principle  of  patriotism  is  narrowed  to  that  of 
class  interest ;  and  any  one  who,  faithful  to  the  navy, 
would  throw  the  protections  of  reform  around  its  hon 
orable  members,  and  make  the  whole  an  honest,  and 
working  institution ;  any  one  who,  with  honest  motives 
undertakes  to  point  out  existing  evils  and  their  mode 
of  correction,  does  it  at  the  risk  of  being  stigma 
tized  as  a  traitor  to  the  service,  and  must  be  content 
to  be  hooted  at  by  those,  who,  like  foul  birds,  do  not 
see  the  corruptions  of  the  nest  to  which  they  cling. 

Such  are  the  gradual  changes,  which,  without  the 
constant   vigilance   of    the   people,    may  influence  a 


OF    A    REPUBLIC. 


naval  establishment,  even  if  it  had  a  fair  beginning^ 
which  ours  never  Lad;  and  when  this  change  has 
been  effected,  new  principles  have  been  introduced, 
pntirely  at  war  with  republicanism.  A  privileged 
class  has  been  instituted,  to  whom  a  large  share  of 
the  wealth  and  honors  of  the  country  belong,  irre 
spective  of  any  claim  of  merit  or  service.  The  gen 
eral  character  of  our  institutions  has  been  departed 
from,  and  as  positive  a  nobility  created,  as  though  its 
members  received  the  titles  of  Lord,  Earl,  Marquis,  or 
Duke  —  a  more  obnoxious  nobility  than  belonged  to 
kingly  France,  when  her  titles,  instead  of  being  the 
inheritance  of  families,  were  the  meed  of  distinguished 
service.  A  subordinate  instrument  of  the  government 
has  thus  become  an  independent  institution,  and,  with 
out  altering  one  word  of  the  constitution  of  our  coun 
try,  principles  have  grown  up  contrary  to  its  whole 
spirit  and  purpose. 

Such  evil  influences  are  more  operative  during  the 
quiescence  of  peace,  than  during  the  activities  of  war. 
In  war,  the  value  of  every  grade,  and  of  each  man  in 
every  grade,  is  felt;  the  work  and  the  purpose  for 


178  NAVAL     INSTITUTIONS 

which  they  are  put  there,  are  more  plainly  before 
them  all ;  their  responsibility  to  their  country  is  more 
apparent,  and  commanding  officers  feel  that  their  own 
position,  honor  and  glory  are  dependent  upon  the 
hearty  co-operation  of  all  departments  of  the  ships 
or  squadrons  placed  in  their  charge :  the  instruments 
of  success  have  then  their  proper  weight  in  the 
work. 

In  peace,  on  the  contrary,  there  is  no  such  conserv 
ative  dependence ;  there  is  no  definite  and  great  ob 
ject  before  the  eyes  of  all,  to  which  their  energies,  in 
proper  relation  and  subordination,  are  to  be  directed, 
and  for  which  those  relations  have  been  established. 
It  is  merely  seen  that  one  set  of  men.  has  great 
privileges  and  power ;  and  that  another  set  is  sub 
jected  to  the  former;  relations  which,  as  we  have 
seen,  are  apt  to  grow  into  false  views  of  the  position 
of  each. 


OF    A    REPUBLIC.  179 


In  the  year  1800,  at  the  very  commencement  of 
this  century,  an  act  was  passed  by  Congress,  for  the 
"better  government  of  the  Navy  of  the  United 
States,"  and,  incredible  as  it  may  appear,  character 
istic  of  stagnation  in  the  midst  of  progress,  this  law 
of  more  than  half  a  century's  duration  is  that  which 
governs  the  navy  now,  without  a  line  or  word  of 
alteration,  excepting  the  repeal,  by  the  last  Congress, 
of  those  portions  which  authorized  the  punishment  of 
flogging,  and  the  continuance  of  this  improvement  is 
now  strenuously  resisted.  If  this  law  had  no  greater 
age  than  that  of  its  enactment  by  our  Congress,  it 
would  still  leave  the  navy  far  behind  the  progress  of 
a  progressive  age,  and  in  this  respect  there  would  be 
a  want  of  harmony  between  the  navy  and  the  coun 
try  ;  but  when  we  come  to  examine  this  law,  we  find 
that  it  wears  but  the  mask  of  the  republic,  and  be 
hind  this  will  be  seen  the  wrinkled  features  of  a 
barbarian  antiquity. 

The  two  first  articles  open  the  law  with  injunctions 


180  NAVAL    INSTITUTIONS 


to  commanding  officers  to  observe  the  duties  of  honor, 
morality  and  religion,  but  no  penalty  for  a  disregard 
of  the  injunction  is  mentioned — of  course  any  attention 
to  them  is  optional.  The  third  article  relates  to  of 
fences  in  which  subordinate  officers  and  privates  may 
be  implicated,  and  becomes  a  little  more  vigorous.  It 
reads  as  follows : 

"Any  officer,  or  other  person  in  the  navy,  who 
shall  be  guilty  of  oppression,  cruelty,  fraud,  profane 
swearing,  drunkenness,  or  any  other  scandalous  con 
duct  tending  to  the  destruction  of  good  morals,  shall, 
if  an  officer,  be  cashiered,  or  suffer  such  other  punish 
ment  as  a  court  martial  shall  adjudge :  if  a  private, 
shall  be  put  in  irons,  or  flogged,  at  the  discretion  of 
the  captain,  not  exceeding  twelve  lashes." 

When  we  come  to  examine  the  nature  of  courts 
martial,  it  will  be  evident  that  this  pompous  and  cum 
brous  machinery  is  little  likely  to  be  brought  to  bear 
against  "profane  swearing,  conduct  tending  to  the 
destruction  of  good  morals,"  or  even  drunkenness; 
and  public  observation  teaches  that  much  of  this 
part  of  the  law  is  a  dead  letter.  Not  so  that  which 


OF    A    REPUBLIC.  181 

prescribed  the  lash.  The  reports  made  to  the  navy 
department,  and  called  for  by  Congress,  show  that, 
whilst  the  law  permitted  this  punishment,  it  was  dealt 
out  with  an  indiscriminating  severity,  little,  if  any, 
modified  by  the  character  of  the  offence,  and  with  a 
recklessness  which  should  forever  prohibit  its  restora 
tion.  The  cats  and  the  colt  were  relieving  substitutes 

& 

for  energy,  thought,  and  judgment  in  the  correction  of 
vice.  It  was  much  more  easy  to  say  "  give  him  a  doz 
en  with  the  cats,"  than  to  exercise  an  intellio-ent  and 

O 

judicious  prudence  in  selecting  the  remedy  for  crime. 

The  remaining  articles,  relating  to  such  varied  of 
fences  as  "breach  of  duty,  disobedience  of  orders, 
cowardice,  negligence,  disaffection,  treachery,  spies, 
murder,  mutiny,  sedition,  desertion,"  have  one  uni 
form  termination  — "  death ! !  or  such  other  punish 
ment  as  a  court  martial  shall  adjudge." 

I  would  particularly  call  attention  to  the  31st  and 
32d  articles,  as  characteristic  of  the  enlightenment 
and  spirit  of  the  whole  code. 

The  thirty-first  says:  "Any  master-at-arms,  or  oth 
er  person  of  whom  the  duty  of  master-at-arms  is 


182  NAVAL    INSTITUTIONS 

required,  who  shall  refuse  to  receive  such  prisoners  as 
shall  be  committed  to  his  charge,  or  having  received 
them,  shall  suffer  them  to  escape,  or  dismiss  them 
without  proper  authority,  shall  suffer  in  such  prison 
er's  stead,  or  be  punished  at  the  discretion  of  a  cour* 
martial." 

The  idea  of  hanging  a  jailer  because  his  prisoners 
escape,  is  nautically  summary. 

The  whole  of  this  truly  wonderful  code  for  th« 
government  of  the  navy  is  comprised  within  five  oc 
tavo  pages.  The  minute  and  specific  law  under  which 
our  army  is  governed,  composes  a  volume  of  over 
three  hundred  pages,  and  on  the  front  of  this  book  it 
is  written : — "  Every  officer  of  the  army  will  be  fur 
nished  with  a  copy;  and  it  is  enjoined  upon  them 
strictly  to  observe  the  rules  therein  set  forth;  and 
every  change,  alteration,  or  departure  therefrom,  un 
less  sanctioned  by  the  War  Department,  is  positively 
forbidden."  Such  a  code  leaves  but  little  room  for 
the  tyranny,  the  caprice,  and  the  dissension  of  indi 
vidual  opinion.  But  on  the  meager  pages  of  naval 
law,  at  the  32d  article,  it  is  written: 


OF    A    REPUBLIC.  183 


"All  crimes  committed  by  persons  belonging  to  the 
navy,  which  are  not  specified  in  the  foregoing  articles, 
shall  be  punished  according  to  the  laws  and  customs 
in  such  cases  at  sea." 

Here  is  a  broad  latitude  for  the  exercise  of  a  capri 
cious  tyranny.  Who  is  to  be  the  judge  of  the  laws 
and  customs,  when  every  commanding  officer  makes, 
to  some  extent,  his  own  laws  and  customs,  and  the 
internal  regulations  of  each  ship  may  differ  as  widely 
as  though  they  belonged  to  different  services?  If 
crimes  were  of  sufficient  frequency  to  have  established 
usages,  they  admitted  of  definition  and  specification. 
This  regulation  unbinds  the  hand  of  power,  and  leaves 
the  service  open  to  capricious  opinion.  Under  so  loose 
and  undefined  a  system,  every  variety  of  view  and 
character  impresses  itself  upon  your  national  ships. 
One  officer  may  encourage  sobriety,  morality,  and 
religion ;  another  pronounce  these  humbugs,  but  wil 
lingly  give  his  men  liberty  to  visit  the  shore  for  a 
drunken  frolic,  and  then  flog  them  for  the  language 
and  conduct  of  intoxication. 

A  specimen  chosen  from  the  reports  of  punishment 


184  NAVAL    INSTITUTIONS 

from  different  ships,  shows  how  absurd  and  unequal  is 
the  punishment  of  naval  crime. 

From  one  vessel  we  have  a  report  of  seventy-three 
cases  of  punishment  in  two  months,  for  varied  offences, 
and  the  record  shows  a  uniform  allowance  of  twelve 
lashes,  the  limit  of  the  law,  to  every  offence,  with  the 
exception  of  two,  and  in  one  of  these  the  crime  is 
"suspicion  of  theft,"  and  for  this  the  unfortunate 
suspected  received  six  lashes  with  the  cats  on  his  bare 
back.  From  another  ship  we  have  the  same  offences 
punished  with  only  six  lashes  on  the  bare  back ;  and 
in  a  third  the  flogging  is  given  over  the  shirt.  Such 
are  the  different  degrees  of  criminality  as  measured 
by  punishment,  attached  to  the  same  offences  in  ships 
of  the  same  service.  Such  is  the  character  of  the 
code  of  law,  which,  without  revision,  amendment,  or 
alteration,  has  governed  the  navy  for  more  than  half 
a  century,  and  which,  with  the  exception  of  the  aboli 
tion  of  flogging,  still  governs  it.  Destitute  of  rewards 
and  encouragements,  destitute  of  securities  for  the 
natural  rights  of  men,  it  offers  no  inducements  for 
the  respectable  American  seaman  to  enter  the  navy. 


OF    A    REPUBLIC.  185 


Although  lie  may  not  be  flogged  now,  he  has  nothing 
to  look  to  beyond  his  subordinate  station ;  and  may, 
though  characterized  by  every  good  quality,  be  con 
fined,  for  months,  within  a  few  yards  of  the  shore,  to 
the  narrow  limits  of  a  man-of-war,  and  tantalized  by 
seeing  officers  and  officers'  servants  hourly  passing  in 
and  out  of  the  ship,  enjoying  a  freedom  denied  to 
him,  who  finds  the  floating  castles  of  your  country  but 
prisons  for  their  defenders. 

The  history  of  mutinies,  from  those  of  the  Nore  and 
Spithead,  down  to  those  in  our  own  service,  shows  that 
one  of  their  most  effective  causes  has  been  the  confine 
ment  of  men  on  board  ship ;  one  of  the  first  demands  is 
for  liberty  to  visit  the  shore ;  and  the  fact  that  all  au 
thorities,  from  officers  of  ships  up  to  ministers  and  kings, 
have  been  compelled  to  yield  to  those  mutinies,  is  proof 
that  discipline  cannot  be  effected  by  severity ;  and  also 
that  law  should  secure  to  ship's  companies  the  privi 
lege,  when  duty  would  permit,  of  freely  visiting  the 
shore.  The  opportunity  of  getting  out  of  a  ship  under 
such  circumstances  becomes  an  intoxicating  excitement, 
and  leads  to  excess ;  whereas,  if  the  privilege  of  liberty, 


NAVAL    INSTITUTIONS 


like  that  of  food,  was  guarantied  by  law  to  the  deserv 
ing,  it  would  become  a  natural  enjoyment,  instead  of 
a  morbid  excitement. 

I  have  seen  the  strongest  men  tremble  with  agita 
tion,  at  the  privilege  of  visiting  the  shore  for  a  few 
hours,  after  long  confinement  on  board  ship. 

Can  desertion,  under  such  circumstances,  be  a  mat 
ter  of  surprise  ?  The  very  human  nature  of  men  is 
driven  to  crime  by  the  imperfection  of  the  law,  which 
then  comes  down  with  its  bloody  penalties. 

With  such  an  organization  can  you  expect  to  create 
an  American  Navy,  from  such  stuff  as  American  citi 
zens  are  made  of  ?  Would  it  not  be  a  disparagement 
of  our  boasted  American  character  if  you  could  ?  The 
best  tribute  to  our  country,  and  severest  commentary 
upon  our  navy,  is  found  in  the  fact  that  so  many  for 
eigners  enter  our  naval  service. 

If  it  were  possible  that  such  a  code  as  governs  our 
navy  had  been  devised  by  wise  heads,  after  careful 
deliberation  and  with  an  intelligent  adaptation  to  the 
institutions  of  our  country,  and  the  character  of  our 
people,  it  would  still  be  likely  to  require  alteration  and 


OF    A    REPUBLIC.  187 

improvement;  but,  I  may  ask,  does  this  law  bear  one 
single  feature  of  our  country  in  all  its  changes  from 
the  stern  landing,  upon  a  wintry  rock,  of  the  freedom- 
seeking  Pilgrims,  to  the  waving  of  our  national  banner 
over  the  golden  hills  and  pearl-gemmed  waters  of  our 
new  Pacific  ocean  state  ? 


It  does  not.  This  code  of  law  is  older  than  our  gov 
ernment,  older  than  our  people,  older  than  modern 
civilization  !  As  a  pretended  American  law,  it  is  an 
imposture,  disgracing  our  statute  books.  It  is  a  blind 
copy,  almost  word  for  word,  of  the  British  articles  of 
war,  framed  under  George  2d,  in  1749,  one  hundred 
and  three  years  ago,  but  actually  based  upon,  and  em 
bodying  the  ideas,  condition  of  things,  and  spirit  exist 
ing  at  the  remote  origin  of  the  Royal  Navy.  This  is 
your  American,  republican  code  of  naval  law.  But 
were  it  a  code  proposed  or  devised  at  the  present  day 
for  the  British  Navy,  it  would  still  have  no  applica 
bility  to  a  single  feature  of  our  country. 

One  nation  has  its  people,  artificially  separated  into 


188  NAVAL   INSTITUTIONS 

ranks  and  classes.  Those  who  serve,  are  regarded  as 
of  another  blood  from  those  who  command. 

The  other  nation  acknowledges  no  difference  be 
tween  men,  but  that  which  shall  be  made  by  the  in 
equality  of  talents  and  virtue.  It  takes  its  highest 
functionaries  from  the  most  humble  occupation;  and 
might  find  its  chief  magistrate  in  one  who  had  been 
a  common  sailor,  as  it  has  in  one  who  had  been  a  com 
mon  soldier,  provided  he  had  the  vigor  of  intellect  for 
the  duties  of  the  station ;  it  acknowledges  no  govern 
ment  of  hereditary  succession,  or  divine  right,  which 
may  make  a  chief  ruler  of  a  feeble  infant,  or  a  weak 
woman. 

The  seamen  of  one  nation  belong  to  a  fixed  rank, 
or  class,  so  low  in  the  social  scale  as  to  be  below 
the  sense  of  degradation,  the  stimulus  of  ambition, 
or  the  protections  of  pride.  The  seamen  of  our  coun 
try  may  represent  a  respectability  equal  to  that  of  their 
commanders,  or  civil  rulers.  Such  broad  distinctions 
would  alone  be  sufficient  to  prevent  the  adaptation  of  a 
British  aristocratic,  monarchal  code  to  our  republican 
navy. 


OF   A   REPUBLIC.  189 

Here  is  a  picture  of  the  royal  navy  which  furnishes 
the  code;  not  drawn  by  foreign  prejudice,  but  given 
by  a  Briton  himself: 

"  Founded  at  a  period  when  slavery  was  universally 
tolerated,  from  liberty  being  comparatively  speaking, 
unknown,  the  first  record  we  possess  of  what  may  fairly 
be  termed  a  royal  navy,  goes  back  to  the  reign  of  the 
7th  Henry,  who,  in  1488,  caused  the  Great  Harry  to 
be  built  and  launched. 

"  The  arbitrary  measures  which,  at  that  remote  pe 
riod,  directed  every  department  of  the  state,  naturally 
extended  to  the  maritime  service,  and  while  the  brutal 
and  irrational  system  of  impressment  formed  the  means 
of  manning  the  navy,  the  allowance  of  pay  and  provi 
sion  were  worthy  the  system  which  provided  the  sea 
men  to  consume  them. 

"  Of  all  the  anomalies  which  have  proved  a  reproach 
to  the  British  constitution,  and  an  inherent  cause  of 
gangrene  and  disorder,  the  press-gang  has  been  the 
most  odious  in  its  origin,  and  the  least  excusable  from 
its  results.  Under  this  remnant  of  feudal  villanage,  the 
arm  of  undiscrimmating  violence  was  made  to  sweep 


190    -  NAVAL    INSTITUTIONS 


up  for  the  noblest  uses  of  the  country,  all  who  were 
so  poor,  so  ignorant,  so  unfriended,  or  so  vicious  as  tc 
be  thrown  at  large  upon  the  highways  of  the  empire, 
without  the  protection  of  those  inconsistent  immunities 
which  arbitrarily  acquit  the  wealthy  from  protecting 
their  own  possessions,  to  force  this  onerous  task  upon 
those  who  have  nothing  to  protect.  In  a  community 
where  reason  had  the  slightest  voice,  or  justice  the 
least  authority,  it  would  naturally  be  imagined  tha/ 
those  possessing  nothing  to  make  life  cheerful,  should, 
at  any  rate,  be  spared  the  cares  which  Providence  hat? 
fixed  as  the  alloy  of  prosperity. 

"  In  contradiction  of  every  axiom  of  this  equitable 
nature,  the  abject  and  friendless  were  seized  for  no 
crime,  but  their  poverty  and  insignificance,  and  im 
prisoned  in  our  men-of-war,  after  no  trial,  save  the 
capricious  will  of  our  inebriated  master  of  the  press- 
gang.  Thus  a  number  of  outraged  individuals  were 
collected  in  our  fleets.  If  they  behaved  well,  fought 
the  battles  of  their  country,  and  drudged  unrepiningly 
through  the  severe  life  of  privations,  which  alone  the 
navy  has  to  offer,  they  become  valuable  to  theb 


OF   A    REPUBLIC.  191 


tyrants,  and  thus  unwittingly  riveted  around  their  own 
necks,  the  chain  of  that  servitude  which  has  to  gall 
them  through  life. 

"  When  the  pen  of  truth  records  the  atrocities  of 
such  a  system  in  the  nineteenth  century,  which  still 
witnesses  its  inactive  existence,  the  mind,  unaccustom 
ed  to  dwell  upon  such  a  complicated  detail  of  villany, 
can,  at  first,  scarcely  credit  the  demonstration  of  such 
facts.  But  the  press-gang  was  merely  the  first  step  to 
the  barbarities  which,  in  the  Royal  Navy  of  Great  Brit 
ain,  ignorance  and  helplessness  have  suffered  on  the  one 
side,  and  cruelty  and  power  have  inflicted  on  the  other. 

"  Our  fleets  having  been  manned  by  a  force  so  resist 
less  and  relentless,  the  unhappy  wretches  imprisoned 
on  board,  were  treated  in  every  manner  befitting  felons 
condemned  to  so  awful  a  punishment. 

"  The  unoffending  being  captured  by  armed  violence, 
for  the  naval  service  of  the  state,  was  only  allowed, 
but  at  rare  intervals,  and  in  many  cases,  never  again 
to  land  upon  that  shore  with  which  every  thing  worth 
estimating  in  life,  was  connected.  From  the  hour  he 
became  an  involuntary  seaman,  he  was  too  often  cut 


192  NAVAL   INSTITUTIONS 

off  from  all  communication  with  friend  or  relative,  and 
generally  sent  to  an  unhealthy  climate. 

"  There,  predisposed  to  disease  from  the  sudden  trans 
ition,  life  was  either  lost,  or  rendered  merely  a  bur 
den  for  the  future ;  exposed  to  a  duty  harrassing  in 
the  extreme,  he  was  placed  under  the  absolute  dispo 
sal  of  a  petty  monarch,  whose  slightest  caprice,  was 
indisputable  law ;  yet,  under  all  these  oppressive  afflic 
tions  he  possessed  no  appeal  from  any  wrong,  save  to 
a  code  of  jurisprudence,  so  severe,  that  every  line  ap 
pears  to  have  been  traced  in  blood,  and  every  other 
penalty  is  a  shameful  death  !  " 

In  addition  to  these  press-gang  victims,  the  jails 
were  emptied  .to  man  the  fleets ;  and  the  code  of  laws 
devised  for  these  captured  slaves  and  jail  felons  of  a 
despotic  government,  is  that  which  we  have  conde 
scended  to  adopt  for  the  government  of  a  navy  of 
voluntarily  enlisted  citizens. 

But  the  picture  is  not  yet  complete ;  the  poor  wretch 
felled  beneath  the  club  of  the  press-gang,  and  torn 
perhaps  forever,  from  his  family  and  home,  with  the 
fiendish  humanity  worthy  of  such  a  pandemonium, 


OF   A   REPUBLIC.  193 

has  the  intoxicating  draft  presented  as  the  balm  for  his 
sorrows,  that  his  whirling  brain  may  lose,  in  this  new 
frenzy,  the  madness  of  his  wrongs,  and  all  the  respect 
of  the  man  be  sunk  to  the  level  of  his  associate  felons, 
to  whom  the  same  cup  comes  as  the  familiar  solace  of 
vice.  All  this  you  have  borrowed,  too ;  the  spirit-room 
and  the  rum  cask,  still  disgrace  your  national  vessels, 
and  the  roll  of  the  martial  drum  is  daily  heard,  calling 
your  crews  around  the  "grog-tub,"  to  receive  the 
potion  which  shall  send  them  away  with  inflamed 
bodies  and  fired  minds,  ready  for  the  quarrels,  the  in 
solence  and  insubordination  to  their  officers,  which, 
heretofore  has  consigned  their  backs  to  the  "  cats,"  and 
still  turns  the  sailor  over  to  handcuffs,  imprisonment, 
and  the  sentry's  charge. 

The  whole  system  is,  clearly,  one  calculated  to 
manufacture  crime,  to  degrade  man,  to  nurture  the 
spirit  of  cruelty,  and  to  supply  the  food  for  its  exer^ 
cise.  The  degradation  is  not  confined  to  the  masses ; 
the  contact  of  officers  with  such  men,  the  disgusting 
criminal  police  duties,  growing  out  of  the  those  rela 
tions,  have  a  deteriorating  influence  upon  all.  How  long 
9 


194  NAVAL    INSTITUTION  8 

shall  this  system  be  permitted  to  continue  ?  The  peo 
ple  of  this  nation  are  responsible  for  its  existence,  and 
every  citizen  who  does  not  do  his  utmost  for  a  reforma 
tion,  is  responsible  for  the  evils  he  may  deplore  and 
condemn. 

I  know  that  our  naval  triumphs  are  pointed  to  as  a 
reason  for  a  continuance  of  the  system  under  which 
they  have  been  won.  They  only  prove  the  difficulty 
of  eradicating  all  that  is  noble  in  man ;  under  the  worst 
influences,  and  after  the  loss  of  every  other  virtue,  he 
still  has  left  that  animal  courage,  which  leads  him  to 
desire  and  strike*  for  victory.  The  navies  of  Europe, 
under  the  worst  possible  institutions,  have  won  glorious 
victories.  The  debased  machine  soldiery  of  Europe  has 
won  splendid  triumphs,  but  they  were  as  nothing,  com 
pared  to  the  magic  glories  of  Napoleon,  who  peopled 
his  army  with  citizens,  and  opened  the  way  from  the 
ranks  to  the  marshal's  baton.  The  history  of  our  glory 
does  not  prove  that  crime,  intoxication,  and  degrada 
tion  are  essential  to  glory,  whilst,  upon  the  contrary,  all 
history  does  prove,  that  the  more  elevated  in  tone  and 
character  a  military  body,  the  greater  are  its  incentives 


OF    A    REPUBLIC.  195 


to  action,  the  less  the  trouble  of  its  government,  and 
the  more  sure  the  probabilities  of  success. 

The  routinists  of  Europe  were  frequent  in  their  pre 
dictions  that  our  militia  would  always  be  easily  scat 
tered  by  defeat.  The  events  of  the  late  Mexican  war, 
dissipated  their  theories  in  astonishment,  and  then  the 
press  of  England  proclaimed  that  the  American  army, 
was  an  army  of  Knights.  Why,  from  the  same  ma 
terials,  cannot  we  have  a  navy  of  respectable  Ameri 
can  citizens  ?  "We  can,  and  we  will. 


But  where  will  the  reforming  influence  come  from  ? 
Whose  business  is  it  ?  It  is  the  business  of  none  so 
much  as  the  people,  and  they  must  impress  their 
wishes  upon  their  representatives  in  the  national  le 
gislature;  otherwise,  what  is  the  course  the  matter 
takes  ?  Persons  interested  in  a  particular  measure  of 
reform  bring  it  singly  and  alone  to  the  notice  of  some 
member  of  Congress;  he  is  pressed  with  what  he  re 
gards  as  more  important  business,  and  which  may,  in 
reality,  be  more  important  than  the  single  measure  to 


196  NAVAL    INSTITUTIONS 

which  his  attention  is  asked,  but  can  scarcely  be  more 
so  than  the  general  defects  from  which  the  single  evil 
springs.  He  is  referred  to  some  other  gentleman, 
who  is  more  prominent  in  naval  matters,  and  this  lat 
ter,  perhaps,  owes  his  prominency  to  special  views, 
derived  from  some  relative,  or  intimate  friend,  in  the 
service,  and  is  already  prepossessed  against  the  inno 
vation.  The  proposition  can  scarcely  get  a  hearing. 
Suppose,  however,  it  advances  a  step  farther,  and  at 
tracts  .general  attention;  it  may  then,  with  the  best 
intentions,  be  referred  to  the  executive,  and  by  this  to 
a  navy  board,  with  all  its  prejudices  arrayed  against 
change  and  improvement.  "  Boards  are  screens," 
says  Jeremy  Bentham.  Thus  reform  revolves  in  a 
maelstrom  which  finally  swallows  it  up. 

That  gentlemen  who,  from  childhood,  have  grown 
up  under  the  present  system  strongly  advocate  its 
continuance,  should  not  cast  any  imputation,  either 
upon  their  intelligence,  or  the  honesty  of  their  opinions 
There  is  nothing  which  so  controls  the  judgment  and 
the  opinions  of  the  most  powerful  minds  as  the  sys 
tems  and  institutions  under  which  men  have  had  theii 


OF   A    REPUBLIC.  10' 


minds  formed.  It  is  almost  an  impossibility  to  shake 
off  this  influence.  Even  the  restoration  of  the  lash 
is  strongly  advocated  by  gentlemen  in  the  service,  of 
honorable  and  upright  purposes  and  intelligent  minds. 
At  the  first  view,  this  seems  like  the  irresistible  testi 
mony  of  practical  experience.  But,  is  it  such  ?  In 
all  inquiries  after  truth,  it  is  a  principle  to  measure 
the  value  of  testimony  by  the  bias  and  influence  under 
which  it  is  given.  These  gentlemen  were  honestly 
opposed  to  the  abolition  of  the  lash,  and,  consequent 
ly,  were  not  in  that  unprejudiced  condition  to  give  the 
reform  a  fair  trial.  Would  any  administration  commit 
its  peculiar  principles  to  its  opponents,  however  honest 
and  intelligent,  and  expect  them  to  be  reported  upon 
successfully?  The  enemies  of  a  measure  like  this 
cannot  give  it  a  fair  trial ;  and,  conceding  to  most,  hon 
est  efforts  to  do  so,  there  may  be  some  who  would 
willingly  throw  odium  upon  the  measure  by  creating 
obstacles  to  its  success.  Until  the  attempt  to  com 
mand  national  ships  without  the  lash  shall  have  been 
committed  to  those  in  favor  of  its  abolition  —  those 
not  bound  to  the  notions  of  a  lifetime  —  there  is  no 


198  NAVAL    INSTITUTIONS 

testimony  upon  the  subject  which  meets  the  character 
of  available  evidence ;  it  is  all  mere  one-sided  opinion. 
By  this  same  kind  of  testimony,  given  by  the  most  pow 
erful  minds  and  honorable  men  who  have  ever  lived, 
it  can  be  shown  that  human  happiness  and  prosperity 
are  dependent  upon  "sovereignty  by  divine  right,"  he 
reditary  aristocracy,  church  establishments,  entailed 
estates,  and  primogeniture,  all  of  which  we  deem  fal 
lacious  impositions  upon  men ;  and  there  is  no  institu 
tion  so  glaring  in  its  wrong  but  it  will  find  advocates 
in  those  brought  up  under,  even  though  oppressed 
by  it. 

One  of  the  most  distinguished  and  deep  thinking 
philosophers  of  England  has  illustrated  this  tendency 
by  the  assertion,  that  if  it  was  proposed  to  introduce  a 
law  authorizing  the  king,  at  pleasure,  to  murder  any 
number  of  his  subjects,  there  would  be  none  to  second 
it;  but  if,  such  a  law  being  in  existence,  it  was  pro 
posed  to  repeal  it,  if  it  passed  at  all,  it  would  only  be 
at  the  end  of  a  considerable  number  of  years;  during 
which,  every  session,  would  have  been  emptied  upon 
it  the  whole  quiverfull  of  those  fallacies  irrelevant  to 


OF     A     REPUBLIC. 


the  proposition  they  are  employed   to  combat,  and 
having  an  equal  force  in  their  application  to  others. 

To  get  at  the  truth  of  tliis  matter,  say  to  those 
officers  who  are  not  committed  against  reform,  who 
are  not  the  fossilized  conservators  of  usages  a  thous 
and  years  old,  "  Those  of  you  who  can  successfully 
command  ships  without  the  lash  shall  be  promoted  to 
the  rank  of  command  ;  "  then  permit  them  to  recruit 
their  own  men,  shut  up  the  grog-tub,  give  them  a 
system  of  rewards  as  well  as  punishments,  suited  to 
the  character  of  our  times  and  people,  and  then,  if 
you  take  the  testimony  of  all,  you  will  reach  the  truth  ; 
its  golden  sands,  instead  of  being  swept  on  by  the 
rushing  stream  of  prejudice,  will  be  deposited  in  the 
eddy  of  conflicting  opinion  and  experience.  Do  this, 
and  you  will  hear  no  more  of  the  necessity  for  the 
lash  for  the  government  of  American  seamen. 


Having  thus  indicated  the  defects  of  naval  govern 
ment,  I  will  now  direct  your  attention  to  the  fact,  that  the 
plan  upon  which  the  navy  is  officered  is  an  ti  republican  ; 


200  NAVAL     INSTITUTIONS 


does  not  present  the  opportunity  of  getting  into  the 
public  employ  the  best  abilities,  and  may  exclude  those 
who  have  the  best  claims  and  the  most  fitness. 

When  appointments  are  to  be  made  to  the  lowest 
grade  of  officers  in  the  line  of  promotion  —  midship 
men —  instead  of  being  thrown  open  to  general  compe 
tition,  and  given  to  those  who,  after  a  proper  examina 
tion,  give  evidence  of  having  the  highest  mental,  moral, 
and  physical  qualities  for  the  station,  they  fall  only  to 
those  youth  who  have  the  aid  of  family  or  political  in 
fluence  ;  and  thus  your  officers  are  made  by  accident, 
and  not  by  the  claim  of  capability.  Fortunately,  the 
general  character  of  the  youth  of  our  country  is  such 
that  a  majority  prove  worthy  of  their  selection,  and  un 
der  congenial  circumstances  would  develop  high  charac 
ter.  But  the  questions  are:  Is  the  plan  republican?  Is 
it  the  most  expedient  ?  Is  it  honest,  either  to  the  coun 
try,  or  to  the  youth  of  the  country  ?  It  is  neither. 
That  plan  is  not  republican  which  does  not  offer  an 
equal  chance  of  elevation  to  the  deserving,  be  he  the 
child  of  the  chief  magistrate,  or  of  the  most  humble 
citizen.  It  is  neither  expedient,  nor  honest,  for  cither 


OF    A    REPUBLIC.  201 

party,  if  it  diminishes  the  chances  of  securing  the  best 
services  for  the  use  of  the  country,  or  excludes  those 
capable  of  rendering  them  from  a  trial  of  their  merits. 
Whilst  the  accident  of  influential  friends  may  pension 
upon  the  countiy  an  unworthy  incumbent,  the  friend 
less  youth  who,  gifted  with  the  qualities  to  honor  his 
country,  desires  an  opportunity  of  serving  it,  must  seek 
it,  as  an  enlisted  hand,  at  the  rendezvous;  and  once 
there,  the  stigma  of  caste  is  upon  him ;  he  is  in  a  class 
from  which  officers  are  not  made ;  encircled  by  a  rigid 
barrier  of  inferiority,  and  cut  off  from  the  hope  of 
elevation,  he  soon  ceases  to  deserve  it. 

"Excelsior"  is  an  impulse  of  the  American  heart, 
and  whilst  this  impulse  beats,  our  youth  will  not  enter 
an  employ  which  binds  them  to  inferiority  ;  conse 
quently,  by  this  plan,  we  inflict  a  double  injury  upon 
the  country.  We  exclude  respectable  young  men 
from  the  ranks  of  tlve  navy,  and,  as  above  stated,  we 
limit  the  chances  for  the  best  selection  of  officers.  Sup 
pose  that  when  vacancies  occur  in  the  junior  grade 
of  officers,  they  were,  in  the  true  spirit  of  republican 
ism,  thrown  open  to  general  competition,  and  given  to 
9* 


202  NAVAL    INSTITUTIONS 

the  most  competent;  the  probabilities  are  that  those 
who  had  the  advantage  of  some  nautical  education, 
with  other  proper  acquirements,  would  have  the  best 
chance  of  success;  and  thus  would  be  established  a 
principle  elevating  your  whole  naval  service ;  instead 
of  being  the  hiding  place  of  the  reprobate  and  criminal, 
those  who  need 

"  The  hangman's  whip 

To  haud  the  wretch  in  order," 

would  find  no  home  in  your  ships.  They  would  be 
peopled  by  the  energetic,  the  enterprising  and  respect 
able  youths  of  the  country;  and  with  such  crews  and 
such  officers,  defeat  in  war,  where  victory  was  within 
the  scope  of  human  effort,  would  be  impossible. 

But  what  is  better,  your  ships,  instead  of  bearing 
to  other  nations  the  wretched  and  servile  imitations 
of  their  own  deformities,  would  carry  your  country 
abroad  in  all  the  features  of  its  noble,  beneficent,  and 
original  institutions.  Navy  and  country  would  be  in 
harmony,  and  your  squadrons  abroad  evidencing  more 
than  the  physical  power  of  the  nation,  would  throw 


OF    A    REPUBLIC.  203 

light  into  darkness,  would  be  eloquent  teachers  to  des 
pots  and  their  victims,  of  the  humanizing  influence  of 
all  institutions  organized  upon  an  acknowledgement 
of  the  rights  of  man  ;  and  their  presence  in  peace 
would  do  more  than  their  armaments  in  war  to  shake 
down  old  traditions,  and  to  disenthrall  our  .fellow  men. 
Such  are  some  of  the  principles  for  the  organiza 
tion  of  a  republican  navy,  but  we  have  not  yet  com 
pleted  the  work. 


Defective  and  unjust  as  is  the  mode  of  appointment 
to  the  navy,  the  principle  which  decides  promotion  to 
the  higher  grades  is  still  more  defective,  and  is  calcu 
lated  to  impair  the  good  qualities  which  may,  acci 
dentally  have  been  brought  into  the  service  by  the 
young  officer. 

It  would  be  thought  very  senseless,  ridiculous  and 
absurd,  if  it  was  proposed  that  those  of  your  borough 
and  county  magistrates  who  lived  the  longest,  should 
be  the  judges  of  the  Supreme  Courts  of  the  states,  and 


204  NAVAL    INSTITUTIONS 


those  of  the  state  judges  who  lived  to  the  greatest  age 
should  form  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States, 
or  that  the  longest-lived  members  of  the  Legislature, 
should  be  your  representatives  and  senators  in  Con 
gress.  Absurd  as  such  a  scheme  appears,  it  is  pre 
cisely  that  upon  which  naval  promotion  is  regulated. 

The  youth  who  has  gained  admission  upon  partial 
selection,  when  he  arrives  at  twenty-one  years  of  age, 
is  examined  as  to  his  character  and  acquirements.  If 
successful  in  this  examination,  his  destiny  for  life  is 
fixed.  This  test  in  his  early  youth  determines  the  du 
ties,  honors  and  station  he  shall  fill  at  thirty,  forty,  fifty, 
sixty,  or  more  years  of  age,  no  matter  how  much  his 
character  may  change  in  the  mean  time,  or  whether, 
being  fit  for  one  class  of  duties  he  is  entirely  unfit  for 
others.  The  simple  rule  is,  that  the  longest  liver 
shall  have  tin1,  highest  rank,  and  the  most  pay.  Such 
is  the  seniority  rule  of  naval  promotion.  The  unre- 
publican  character  of  this  rule  is  manifest.  Honor  and 
station  being  the  consequence  of  the  accident  of  long 
life,  constitute  a  nobility  as  much  as  if  they  were  the 
accidents  of  birth;  a  nobility  existing  independently 


OF    A    REPUBLIC.  205 

of  the  ordinary  responsibilities  of  men.  A  mechanic, 
business,  or  professional  man  is  dependent  for  suc 
cess  upon  the  abilities  he  shall  establish  in  the  com 
munity  to  which  he  belongs ;  so  is  it  with  your  public 
men  ;  and  if  these  shall,  in  the  progress  of  their  lives, 
forfeit  the  confidence  they  had  once  merited,  they  lose 
the  public  support.  jSTot  so  with  the  naval  officer; 
his  promotion  is  independent  of  the  community  to 
which  he  belongs.  The  officer  of  the  highest  talents 
and  most  efficiency  may  grow  old  in  an  inferior  station, 
whilst  the  most  inefficient  may  occupy  the  highest. 
The  disastrous  effects  of  such  a  system  are  painfully 
evident  in  our  naval  service,  and  common  sense  ought 
to  have  anticipated  them.  In  the  first  place  the  ordi 
nary  incentives  to  continued  labor  and  improvement 
are  removed.  What  good  can  it  do  the  individual  ? 
None,  officially.  In  truth  the  rewards  of  such  a  sys 
tem  are  for  worthlessness  and  incompetency ;  because, 
if  an  officer  becomes  known  to  the  service,  and  to  the 
department,  for  objectionable,  or  incompetent  qualifi 
cations,  he  is  not  put  on  duty,  but  permitted  to  remain 
at  home,  on  good  pay,  whilst  those  of  better  reputation 


200  NAVAL    INSTITUTIONS 

do  his  duties,  and  yet  if  he  lives  up  to  a  vacancy  in 
a  higher  grade,  unless  he  is  eminently  notorious,  he 
steps  into  it  with  its  rewards  and  honors.  The  .conse 
quence  of  all  this  is,  that  those  officers  who  represent 
the  greatest  vigor  of  age,  and  of  mental  and  physical 
power,  are  growing  old  in  subordinate  grades;  some 
of  them  in  that  of  apprenticeship.  There  are  now 
many  passed  midshipmen,  older  than  were  Perry, 
McDonough,  and  Decatur,  when  they  achieved  the 
victories  which  have  given  their  names  to  history. 


But,  it  will  be  said  to  me,  you  have  your  judicial 
tribunals  ;  your  courts  martial  ;  true,  we  have  ;  and  fit 
courts  for  such  a  state,  keystones  of  the  whole  arch  of 
wrong. 

In  civil  life,  just  and  wise  laws  provide  that  every 
bias  of  interest  shall  be  removed  from  the  judicial 
bench,  and  particularly,  that  every  influence  hostile  to 
the  prisoner,  shall  be  provided  against.  In  courts 
martial  just  the  reverse  is  the  state  of  things  ;  every 


OF    A    REPUBLIC. 


interest  and  prejudice  of  power;  every  influence  of 
grade  against  grade,  of  station  against  station,  is  in 
operation,  to  say  nothing  of  the  bias  of  personal  par 
tialities,  and  enmities  growing  out  of  the  relations  of 
service. 

An  assemblage  of  men  in  solemn  state  around  a 

O 

table,  each  one  glittering  in  gold,  embroidery,  and 
epaulets,  has  an  imposing  effect  to  the  eye;  but  it  is 
our  business  to  look  behind  this  covering,  at  the 
human  beings  and  human  hearts  it  disguises,  and  we 
shall  find  them  with,  at  least,  all  the  ordinary  defects 
and  weaknesses  of  our  imperfect  nature. 

Even  if  there  were  no  truth-distorting  influences  to 
act  upon  these  defects,  the  habits  of  thought,  the  ac 
quirements  and  the  occupations  of  those  who  constitute 
courts  martial,  are  not  those  which  best  qualify  men 
for  judging  evidence,  and  sifting  hidden  truth  from 
contradictory,  artful,  and  interested  testimony.  Some 
conscientious  and  intelligent  officers  admit  this  them 
selves.  The  members  of  courts  martial  being  always 
commanding  officers,  or  those  exercising  military  au 
thority,  if  a  subordinate  is  brought  before  them  for 


208  NAVAL    INSTITUTIONS 


trial,  or  one  of  their  own  number  is  arraigned  for  acts 
of  oppression,  the  question  is  not  between  two  equal 
individuals,  before  a  disinterested  tribunal,  but  be 
tween  two  hostile  principles ;  between  that  of  power, 
seeking  increase  and  irresponsibility,  as  power  natural 
ly  will,  and  that  of  men,  defending  at  least,  supposed 
rights  —  and  it  is  left  to  power,  and  the  sympathies  of 
power  to  decide  it.  It  is  unnecessary  to  say  what  that 
decision  generally  would  be. 

Further,  there  are  grades  in  the  service,  represent 
ing  your  most  important  interests,  and  a  conscientious 
performance  of  the  duties  of  these  grades,  may  bring 
the  officers  of  them  into  conflict  with  those  who  will 
bear  no  questioning  of  their  authority.  The  questions 
may  concern  matters  of  which  the  officers  to  whom 
they  are  entrusted,  can  alone  judge,  or,  at  least,  can  best 
judge,  and  yet  these  officers  are  never  permitted  to  sit 
in  courts  martial,  even  when  one  of  their  own  number 
may  be  tried  fbr  a  conscientious  discharge  of  his  duty. 
The  interests  confided  to  these  officers,  require  as  great 
an  amount  of  intelligence  and  acquirement,  and  as  hon 
orable  a  character,  as  possibly  can  be  demanded  by  any 


OF    A    REPUBLIC.  209 

naval  duty.  For  instance ;  there  is  a  grade  of  officers 
to  whom  is  confided  the  responsibility  of  administering 
the  finances  of  your  ships ;  each  of  these  officers  give 
heavy  bonds  for  the  faithful  and  honest  performance  of 
his  duties.  There  is  another  grade  to  which  is  entrust 
ed  a  responsibility,  for  the  health  and  lives  of  ships  and 
squadrons. 

A  commanding  officer  may  do  that  which  would  en 
danger  the  public  funds,  and  involve  the  disbursing 
officer  and  his  bondsmen;  or,  he  may,  without  cause, 
neglect  the  precautions,  for  the  preservation  of  ships 
and  their  crews,  from  disease  and  death.  In  either 
case,  the  disbursing,  or  medical  officer,  for  doing  his 
duty,  may  be  arraigned  before  a  tribunal  of  the  sym 
pathizing  associates  of  his  prosecutor,  without  the  pres 
ence  of  a  single  officer  of  his  own  grade,  to  aid  in  the 
investigation  of  truth,  and  to  diminish  the  chances  of 
an  erroneous  and  unjust  judgment. 

The  decision,  a  few  years  ago,  of  one  of  these  courts 
was  such  a  violation  of  evidence,  truth,  and  justice  — 
the  question  being  between  a  medical  and  command 
ing  officer,  just  such  a  question  as  we  have  stated — that 


210  NAVAL     INSTITUTIONS 


an  indignant,  and  independent  secretary  of  the  navy 
annulled  the  proceedings ;  in  a  letter  of  caustic  severi 
ty,  severely  censured  the  court,  and  yet,  the  members 
of  that  court  are  in  high  and  honorable  station,  and  eli 
gible  to  other  courts  martial,  and  most  probably  have 
sat  in  them. 

An  essay  published  by  myself  ten  years  ago,  con 
tained  the  following  words. 

"  In  the  national  legislature,  constantly  varying  with 
the  varying  politics  of  the  nation,  the  navy  has  no 
permanent  and  practically  informed  representation. 
The  presiding  officer  of  the  navy  department  deriv 
ing  his  official  existence  from  the  same  unstable  con 
tingencies,  that  existence  is  but  temporary  with  the 
individual ;  consequently,  each  new  Congress,  and  each 
new  secretary  derive  their  information  from,  and  have 
their  actions  controlled  by  those  engaged  in  service, 
and  naturally  seek  their  advice  and  directions  from  the 
highest  grade  in  it;  a  grade  which  has  the  advantage 
too,  of  holding  with  them  intimate  social  relations. 

"  Commanders  necessarily  become,  from  these  cir 
cumstances,  the  creators  of  the  powers  under  which  they 


OF     A     REPUBLIC.  211 

act ;  and  the  court  of  appeal  from  their  own  injustice ; 
powers,  which  would  tempt  angels  from  their  purity, 
and  which  tend  to  launch  humanity  upon  an  unbound 
ed  sea  of  corruption."  Soon  after  the  publication  of 
this  essay,  I  received  from  London,  a  volume  by  an 
English  writer,  upon  this  subject,  from  which  I  make 
the  following  quotations,  and  I  do  it,  to  show  that  if 
two  persons,  divided  by  the  Atlantic,  without  com 
munication,  come  to  the  same  conclusions,  the  one 
respecting  the  iniquity  of  the  original  system,  and  the 
other  respecting  that  of  its  deformed  progeny,  it  offers 
some  evidence  that  their  conclusions  are  correct  Un 
less  the  innovating  hand  of  reform  strikes  down  the  evil 
planted  upon  our  soil,  and  originates  improvement, 
there  can  be  but  little  hope  of  our  borrowing  it  from 
sources  which  have  sent  us  the  evil.  From  the  writer 
alluded  to,  I  quote  the  following  remarks  upon  courts 
martial.  "The  only  court  known  to  naval  law,  by 
which  wrongs  could  be  redressed,  and  injuries  punish 
ed,  was  a  court  martial.  Under  the  blood-thirsty 
enactments  to  which  we  have  alluded,  these  courts 
martial  were  composed  exclusively  of  admirals  and 


212  NAVAL    INSTITUTIONS 

captains,  and  if  the  party  tried  was  of  this  rank,  there 
naturally  arose  a  prejudice  of  the  court  in  his  favor. 
On  the  contrary,  if  the  party  complaining,,  were  be 
neath  this  rank,  there  naturally  arose  a  prejudice  of 
the  court  against  him.     All  the  oaths  that  were  ever 
taken  by  mankind,  are  insufficient  to  turn  back  the 
current  of  the  human  heart;   this  bias  might  have 
been  most  abundantly  made  evident  in  numberless 
instances,  that  have  since  occurred.     So  perfectly  well 
known  has  this  feeling  ever  been,  and  so  prevalent 
does  it  still  continue  to  be  in  the  British  Navy,  that 
an  axiom  has  been  generated  from  long  experience  of 
its  truth  —  that  no  man,  however  completely  in  the 
right,  can  safely  venture  to  bring  a  charge  against  a 
superior  officer,  without  being  irretrievably  ruined  in 
the  service. 

"  That  the  barest  semblance  of  justice  can  be  re 
tained,  under  such  an  iniquitous  system  is  impossible  * 
and  that  it  is  to  be  borne  without  murmuring,  by  any 
but  a  set  of  helots,  is  equally  unnatural. 

"  The  climax  of  this  thrice  revolting  mode  of  gov 
eminent*  has  yet  to  be  told.  Whenever,  by  any 


OF    A    REPUBLIC.  213 


interposition  of  Providence,  some  unblushing  tyrant,  af 
ter  an  uninterrupted  career  of  cruelty  and  power,  com 
mitted  some  crime  so  flagrant,  that  not  even  the  abet 
tors  of  this  system  could  pass  it  over  —  whenever  the 
long  reluctant  hand  of  authority  was  obliged  to  order 
the  criminal  to  his  trial,  and  even  his  prejudiced  com 
peers  were  unable  to  acquit  him  —  when  all  these  too 
rarely  occurring  events  of  Providence  brought  about 
that  extraordinary  effort  of  justice,  the  cashiering  a 
culprit  from  his  rank,  the  convict  retired  awhile,  it  is 
true,  from  the  command  which  he  had  disgraced ;  but 
some  parliamentary,  or  other  influence,  was  always 
ready  to  be  made  with  a  corrupt  minister:  and  after 
a  temporary  secession,  and  most  inadequate  punish 
ment,  he  was  restored  to  that  rank,  which  he  had  so 
infamously  abused,  and  in  which  he  was  again  placed 
to  enjoy  the  opportunities  of  torturing  one  of  the  most 
valuable,  best-disposed,  and  ill-requited  classes,  in  the 
kingdom. 

"  By  the  laws  of  England,  the  felon  who  commits 
the  most  brutal  of  all  crimes,  the  most  savage  of  mur 
ders,  can  only  be  tried  by  twelve  of  his  equals.  Of 


214  NAVAL     INSTITUTIONS 


these,  lie  has  not  only  the  unlimited  right  of  rejecting 
as  many  as  are  open  to  any  legal  cause  of  objection, 
but  a  further  privilege  of  dismissing  from  the  jury-box, 
twenty  more,  without  assignment  of  reason  or  cause." 
-Against  this  humble  wretch,  the  merciful  majesty  of 
English  justice,  allows  not  one  word  to  be  urged  in 
prosecution,  that  can  possibly  prejudice  the  prisoner's 
case ;  not  one  particle  of  evidence  to  be  received,  that 
is  not  in  strict  accordance  with  those  laws  and  prece 
dents  which  the  experience  of  ages,  and  the  most 
refined  wisdom  of  English  judges  have  laid  down 
through  the  long  practice  of  centuries.  ]Nbt  one  wit 
ness  is  permitted  to  open  his  lips  against  the  prisoner, 
without  being  subjected  to  the  severest  scrutiny  as 
to  his  means  of  knowledge,  his  motives,  his  own  pre 
vious  good,  or  bad  character,  and  the  degree  of  credit 
which  may  be  attached  to  what  he  swears.  The  whole 
proofs  against  the  criminal  are  then  sifted  by  a  judge, 
whose  entire  life  has  been  devoted  to  the  law,  and  the 
investigation  of  truth. 

"  Every  possible  care  seems  exercised,  not  only  that 
the  seaman  shall  not  be  tried  by  any  one,  who  can  be 


OF    A    REPUBLIC.  215 


imagined  his  peer ;  but,  that  a  set  of  jurors  or  judges, 
call  them  which  you  will,  shall  be  got  together  with 
every  possible  prejudice  of  rank,  station,  habit,  and 
command,  militating  against  the  lowly  and  unfortunate 
prisoner. 

"  As  this  mockery  proceeds,  the  worst  evidence  is 
as  often  admitted  as  the  best,  and  hearsay  finds  quite 
as  much  admission  from  the  skillful  tribunal,  as  direct 
testimony.  But  for  this  glaring  absurdity,  and  rank 
injustice,  there  is  a  weighty  reason;  scarcely  one,  if 
any,  of  the  judges  could  command  the  knowledge 
necessary  to  distinguish  the  one  from  the  other.  If 
the  most  perjured  and  forsworn  of  witnesses  present 
ed  himself  against  the  prisoner ;  the  only  attempt  that 
can  be  made  to  supply  the  want  of  that  safeguard  of 
our  personal  liberties  and  happiness,  cross-examination, 
is  the  slow  administration  by  the  prisoner  of  such  ques 
tions  as  the  court  chooses  to  allow,  and  which  must, 
generally,  if  not  always,  be  written  down  before  the 
witness  can  be  compelled  to  answer  them.  By  this 
almost  inconceivable  folly,  the  sole  hope  of  examina 
tion,  rapid  question  and  answer  is  swept  away,  and 


216  NAVAL    INSTITUTIONS 


the  corrupt  perjurer,  the  malicious  fors wearer,  gains 
the  most  ample  time  to  fabricate  any  untruth  that  may 
most  conduce  to  his  ends. 

"  The  prisoner  having  made  his  defence,  the  court 
is  cleared;  those  who  have  dovetailed  the  widely  and 
properly-revered  officers  of  judge  and  jury,  hold  a  se 
cret  conclave  with  closed  doors.  No  impartial  head, 
clear  from  the  agitating  and  often  distracting  respon 
sibility  of  pronouncing  on  life  or  death,  reads  over  to 
them  the  evidence,  or  lends  the  light  of  past  ages  and 
experience  to  elucidate  what  is  dark  and  doubtful.  Be 
the  prejudices  and  liabilities  of  those  men  what  they 
may,  they  are  left  to  expound  the  statute  by  which 
alone,  their  authority  is  supported,  to  decide  how  far 
the  facts  come  under  the  exposition  of  the  statute,  and 
to  apportion  the  degree  of  punishment  to  the  facts ;  an 
extent  of  powers,  which,  on  shore,  it  often  requires 
jury,  judge,  and  crown  to  compass. 

"  If  those  only,  are  free  whose  liberties  are  un- 
shackeled;  if  those  are  slaves  from  whom  such  liber 
ties  are  withheld;  if  the  first  right  of  liberty  be  as 
Britons  boast,  a  fair  unbiassed  trial,  and  English  courts 


OF   A   REPUBLIC.  2l7 

of  justice  form,  as  mankind  generally  admit,  the  most 
perfect  specimens  of  even-handed  justice,  what  then, 
let  it  be  demanded,  is  the  position  of  the  officers  and 
seamen  of  the  British  Navy,  at  this  hour  ?  Are  they 
freemen,  or  they  are  slaves  ?  This  is  clear,  under  the 
present  system  of  naval  courts  martial;  justice  as  it  is 
known  and  worshiped  on  the  shores  of  Great  Britain, 
is  a  thing  as  little  to  be  expected  on  those  high  seas 
from  whence  the  greatness  rose,  as  that  the  sun  reflect 
ed  on  their  eternal  mirror,  shall  renounce  his  light" 

Thus  does  the  honest  subject  of  an  aristocratic, 
monarchical  government,  stigmatize  the  enormities  of 
that  court  martial  system,  which  we,  of  republican 
America  have  condescended  to  adopt. 

Do  any  of  you  think  it  consistent  with  the  character 
and  institutions  of  your  country  ?  Is  it  a  judicial  sys 
tem,  calculated  to  winnow  the  navy  of  that  defective 
material,  which  your  partial  system  of  appointment 
may  have  introduced,  or  which  the  deteriorating  in 
fluences  we  have  examined,  may  have  created. 

Some  other  plan  then  is  necessary,  to  remedy  de 
fects  which  have  now  become  so  apparent,  that  the 
10 


218  NAVAL    INSTITUTIONS 


navy  itself,  congressional  committees,  and  the  execu 
tive  have  all  proclaimed  the  necessity  for  reform,  and 
ask  for  its  institution. 

One  plan  proposed  is,  to  annul  the  blind  seniority 
rule,  and  leave  with  the  executive  the  discretionary 
power  of  promoting  by  merit  As  nothing  could  be 
worse  than  our  present  system,  so  any  change  would 
be  an  improvement,  and,  therefore,  even  this  might  be 
acceptable.  The  objections  to  it  are,  that  the  execu 
tive  would  be  ignorant  of  the  characters  of  officers 
generally,  and  would  be  influenced  necessarily,  by  in 
formation  derived  from  others ;  and  these  would  be  the 
few  officers  of  high  rank,  in  immediate  contact  with  the 
government,  and  thus  the  real  power  of  selection,  would 
be  with  unknown  and  irresponsible  persons ;  a  kind  of 
secret  tribunal,  which  could  thus  gratify  the  personal 
partialities  or  prejudices  of  its  members.  This  method 
of  selection  would  likewise  be  open  to  family  or  politi 
cal  influence. 

Another  suggestion  is,  to  commit  the  selection  to  a 
regularly  constituted  board  of  officers.  Similar  objec 
tions  lie  against  this ;  it  would  make  all  subordinates 


OF   A   REPUBLIC.  219 


dependent  upon  the  good  feeling  of  the  few  officers 
likely  to  constitute  the  board,  and  the  personal  predi 
lections  of  these  would  have  too  much  weight.  It  is 
suggested  as  the  best  plan,  and  that  most  conformable 
to  republican  institutions,  to  make  each  entire  grade  a 
board,  to  say  which  of  their  number  have  the  highest 
claims  for  promotion ;  every  officer  being  required  to 
give  his  opinion,  and  prohibited  from  voting  for  him 
self.  The  president  still  having  the  nominating  power, 
his  judgment  would  be  aided  by  the  most  instructed 
information,  derived  from  the  verdict  of  the  entire  com 
munity  to  which  each  officer  belongs. 

The  advantages  of  this  plan  are  numerous ;  the  most 
prominent,  only,  can  be  alluded  to.  The  character 
and  peculiar  abilities  of  every  officer  are  known  to  the 
grade  to  which  he  belongs,  and,  therefore,  its  opinion 
rests  upon  certain  knowledge ;  as  none  could  advance 
himself,  there  could  be  no  inducement  to  withhold  a 
correct  verdict;  personal  prejudices,  enmities,  and  par 
tialities  would  be  neutralized  in  the  decision  of  the 
entire  grade  —  there  would  be  no  undue  dependence 
of  officer  upon  officer,  and  none  of  commanding  upon 


220  NAVAL    INSTITUTIONS 

subordinate  grades,  as  each  officer  would  owe  his  pro 
motion  to  his  equal,  and  not  to  those  below  or  above 
him  ;  there  would  be  a  beneficial  influence  upon  char 
acter  and  constant  stimulus  to  improvement,  because 
one  promotion  would  not  determine  others,  but  every 
step  must,  as  in  civil  life,  be  won  from  the  good  opinion 
of  the  community  to  which  the  individual  belongs; 
and  this  is  an  influence  from  which  no  man  should  be 
released. 


To  create  a  republican  navy,  therefore,  it  is  necessary 
to  remodel  our  whole  establishment. 

To  throw  its  commissions  open  to  the  whole  com 
munity,  selecting  for  the  public  service,  only  those  who 
upon  proper  investigation,  are  found  to  have  most 
fitness. 

This  is  no  great  innovation,  as  necessity  has  com 
pelled  its  adoption  in  relation  to  two  corps  of  the  navy, 
as  the  only  plan  to  fill  them  with  competent  officers. 
I  allude  to  the  medical  and  engineer  corps  ;  as  family 


OF    A    REPUBLIC.  221 

or  political  influence  cannot  give  capacity  for  the  du 
ties  of  these  corps,  so  these  influences  can  gain  no  one 
admission  to  them.  All  have  the  right  of  competing, 
and  frequently,  those  of  wealth  and  station,  are  exclu 
ded  by  the  superior  claims  of  those  who  have  raised 
their  fortunes  from  the  friendless  gloom  of  obscurity. 

Next,  we  want  a  plan  of  elevation  to  the  higher 
grades  which  shall  be  independent  of  seniority,  or  any 
other  mere  accident,  and  the  mode  of  selection  com 
mitted  to  a  body  at  once  informed  upon  the  subject, 
and  free  from  the  bias  of  partiality  and  prejudice. 

Then  we  want  a  code  of  laws  framed  upon  the  char 
acter  of  the  age,  the  people,  the  country,  and  its  in 
stitutions,  and  finally, 

A  judicial  tribunal,  which  shall  be  instructed  in  the 
nature  of  law  and  evidence  —  the  best  mode  of  inter 
preting  the  one,  and  investigating  the  other;  which 
shall  form  its  judgment  free  from  the  bias  of  caste,  sta 
tion,  rank,  grade,  with  all  their  conflicting  sympathies, 
prejudices  and  interests. 

Glorious  sea-fights  have  given  victory  to  all  forms 
of  governments  and  institutions,  from  the  time  of  that 


222  NAVAL    INSTITUTIONS 

of  pagan  Athenians  and  pagan  Persians,  at  Salamis, 
down  to  the  present  hour.  Two  hundred  years  ago, 
the  Dutchman,  Von  Tromp,  with  a  broom  at  his  mast 
head,  insolently  swept  the  British  Channel.  Much 
less  than  that,  English  and  Dutch  fleets  succumbed  to 
the  naval  power  of  a  despotic  Bourbon. 

And  then  we  have  the  whole  pile  of  British  glory, 
St  Vincent  and  Camperdown,  the  Nile  and  Trafalgar, 
with  our  own  seventeen  naval  victories,  one  of  which* 
with  its  booming  cannon  shook  the  air  of  this  spot,  all 
gained  under  an  organization  embodying,  not  only  the 
spirit  of  monarchy  and  aristocracy,  but  that  of  feudal 
Darbarism. 

Are  these  victories  a  reason  for  returning  to  pagan 
ism,  to  political  and  civil  institutions  of  the  days  of  the 
Armada?  Do  they  present  a  sufficient  reason  for 
keeping  our  navy  under  the  principles  which  we  cast 
off  and  far  away  in  1776  ? 

Shall  it  not  rather  be  brought  up  to  a  level  with 
the  country  to  which  it  belongs,  as  that  country  now 

*  Lake  Erie. 


OF    A    REPUBLIC.  223 

is,  and  be  to  other  navies,  as  this  republic  is  to  other 
nations,  a  star  in  the  west  for  their  light  and  guidance  ? 
Manned  by  those  who,  humble  in  position  and  duties, 
were  yet  animated  by  the  consciousness  of  an  enno 
bling  republican  citizenship,  with  its  rights  and  its  pro 
tections,  the  navy  would  be  a  fitting  instrument  in  the 
sublime  contest  in  which  is  yet  to  be  won  its  highest 
renown  —  that  coming  struggle  between  despotism 
and  constitutional  government  —  and  no  stain  of  de 
gradation  will  then  accompany  the  glories  of  our  flag. 
The  loud  and  million-mouthed  shout  which  wel 
comes  the  tidings  of  each  ocean  triumph,  will  not  be 
the  outburst  of  that  animal  exultation  which  equally 
greets  the  victor  mastiff  at  the  bull-fight,  or  bear-bait ; 
nor  will  it  be  swelled  alone  by  the  glory  of  national 
power — the  pride  of  conquest  adding  other  stars  to 
our  constellation.  It  will  burst  from  our  shores  over 
their  boundary  oceans,  and  be  echoed  from  the  hearts 
of  hoping  men  of  all  nations,  who  will  hear  the  roar  of 
your  victorious  cannon,  proclaiming  the  spread  of  our 
political  light  over  the  darkness  of  despotism  and  illu 
mining  all  institutions  of  government,  on  sea  or  shore. 


HINTS  TO  THE  PEOPLE 

UPON  THE 

PROFESSION  OF  MEDICINE. 


HESTTS  TO  THE  PEOPLE 


UPON  THE 


PROFESSION  OF  MEDICINE. 


It  is  told  of  an  ignorant,  but  shrewd  and  impu 
dent  individual  who  became  a  wealthy  and  successful 
quack,  that  upon  being  called  upon  by  a  wondering 
friend  who  had  known  him  in  his  lowly  estate,  and 
asked  how,  with  so  few  claims,  he  had  risen  to  fame 
and  fortune,  he  took  his  friend  to  the  window  which 
looked  out  upon  a  crowded  London  street,  and  asked 
how  many  wise  or  sensible  men  might  be  in  the 
passing  crowd  ?  "  Not  more  than  one  in  a  hundred,'* 
was  the  reply.  "The  remainder  are  mine." 

The  success  of  quackery,  and  the  popular  obstacles 
thrown  in  the  way  of  true  medical  science  being 
based  upon  those  deficiencies  of  human  judgment 
which  are  generally  called  human  folly,  and  which, 


228  PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE. 

proverbially,  form  so  large  a  portion  of  human  nature, 
it  is  almost  a  hopeless  task  to  correct  the  evil,  and 
the  attempt  to  do  so  may  be  only  another  manifes 
tation  of  the  general  infirmity.  Individuals  who  oc 
cupy  positions  of  learning  and  influence,  theologians 
and  lawyers,  and  who  in  their  general  character  have 
not  the  reputation  of  being  either  arrogant  or  con 
ceited,  constantly  and  confidently  place  their  own 
views  and  opinions  in  opposition  to  those  of  the 
whole  medical  profession,  and  lend  the  influence  of 
their  names  and  position  to  the  support  of  opinions 
which  have  not  been  to  them  a  study,  in  opposition 
to  the  judgment  of  that  profession  which  has  made 
them  a  matter  of  most  careful  investigation.  This 
fact  proves  that  folly  is  not  confined  to  the  illiterate 
or  to  those  who  are  marked  specimens  of  imbecility, 
but  that  it  pervades  all  classes,  dilutes  learning,  and 
humiliates  station.  It  shows  also  that  the  nature 
of  the  profession  of  medicine  is  not  understood,  and 
that  the  popular  ideas  in  regard  to  it  are  formed 
from  a  most  narrow  and  limited  view  of  what  con 
stitutes  the  profession.  These  ideas  are  most  probably 


PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE.  229 

derived  from  an  acquaintance  with  but  one  class  or 
division  of  the  medical  profession,  that  class  which 
alone  is  brought  into  contact  with  the  people.  It  is 
composed  of  those  who  pursue  the  profession  as  an 
art;  its  working  men,  who  laboriously  and  carefully 
drudge  in  the  application  of  its  means  and  details 
to  their  designed  end.  It  may  be  that  this  acquaint 
anceship  is  limited  to  the  medical  working  men  of 
one  locality,  or  at  most  of  one  country;  and  how 
ever  able  and  skillful  the  individuals  of  this  class 
may  be,  still  they  constitute  but  one,  though  an 
essential  one  of  the  many  divisions  which  are  em 
braced  within  the  whole  art  and  science  of  medicine. 
Again,  the  art  of  medicine  is  most  probably  under 
stood  as  signifying  only  a  mere  routine  acquaintance 
with  the  symptoms  and  names  of  diseases,  and  the 
application  to  those  symptoms  and  diseases,  of  certain 
remedies  which  experience  has  taught  to  be  available. 
Such  limited  views  fall  far  short  of  the  nature  and 
scope  of  the  profession  of  medicine.  As  well  might 
the  genius  of  Sir  Humphrey  Davy,  the  science  which 
he  adorned,  and  the  philosophic  inspiration  which 


230          PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE. 

deduced  the  safety  lamp,  be  sunk  in  the  wire  gauze 
of  the  little  implement,  or  a  view  limited  only  to 
the  miner  who  carries  it.  But  were  such  views 
correct,  and  sufficiently  extensive,  it  would  still  seem 
that  a  decent  modesty  would  teach  those  who  feel 
the  necessity  of  deferring  to  the  judgment,  in  his 
vocation,  of  their  tailor,  shoemaker,  or  blacksmith, 
to  pay  a  similar  regard,  upon  medical  subjects,  to 
those  who  have  made  them  their  study. 

A  very  different,  and  much  more  expanded  view 
is  presented  by  the  profession  of  medicine  to  one 
educated  in  it.  He  sees  it  in  the  various  divisions, 
and  vast  arrangements  spread  out  over  the  civilized 
world,  and  acting  with  all  the  power  which  can  be 
derived  from  an  aggregation  of  the  highest  order 
of  intellect,  disciplined  and  strengthened  to  the 
utmost  for  its  work.  In  every  one  of  the  various 
departments  of  his  profession,  the  medical  student 
sees,  not  one  only,  but  a  collection  of  names  desig 
nating  individuals  whose  mental  power  demands  the 
admiration  of  all  who  can  appreciate  their  labors, 
—  labors  to  which  nothing  short  of  the  greatest 


PROFESSION     OF    MEDICINE.  231 

intellectual  strength  is  adequate.  Follow,  then,  the 
eye  of  this  student,  as  it  sweeps  over  the  cities  of 
his  own  country,  of  England,  France,  Germany, 
Egypt,  Prussia,  and  Turkey,  and  see  with  him  the 
several  divisions  of  the  profession,  studying  man  in 
health  and  disease,  from  the  microscopic  elementary 
atom  of  each  organ,  up  to  his  full  development  and 
arrangement  in  families,  tribes,  and  nations. 

Medical  chemists,  day  and  night,  amid  the  ma 
chinery  of  their  laboratories,  are  hunting  nature  in 
her  hidden  recesses,  and  exposing  the  principles  and 
laws  of  combination.  Medical  microscopists  are  finding 
beauty  of  form  and  structure,  where  the  naked  eye 
sees  not  at  all,  or  sees  only  a  confused  speck,  and 
they  are  developing  systems  as  wonderful  in  their 
minuteness,  as  that  of  astronomy  in  its  magnitude. 
The  anatomist,  the  physiologist,  the  pathologist,  con 
centrating  all  their  powers  and  observations  upon 
the  various  subdivisions  of  these  extensive  sciences; 
the  medical  statistician,  estimating  the  influence  upon 
health  and  life  of  social  and  political  conditions; 
of  occupations;  of  population;  of  concentration  in 


232          PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE. 

towns  or  diffusion  in  the  country;  the  medical  psy 
chologist,  studying  the  health  and  morbid  manifesta 
tions  of  mind.  Look,  too,  over  distant  parts  of  the 
globe,  and  see  the  medical  corps  of  armies  and 
navies  adding  to  the  common  stock,  their  observa 
tions  upon  climates,  the  habits,  diseases  and  remedies 
of  different  nations.  Specially  devoted  to  such  ob 
servations  and  inquiries  is  the  medical  traveler,  of 
whom  the  stationary  practitioner  may  say,  he 

"Seeks  intelligence  in  every  clime, 
And  spreads  the  honey  of  his  deep  research 
At  his  return  —  a  rich  repast  for  me." 

The  professional  inquirer  finds,  in  the  large  cities 
of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America,  extensive  hospitals 
and  medical  institutions:  cities  of  disease  in  them 
selves;  some  of  them  devoted  to  a  single  variety 
of  disease;  and  most  of  them  presided  over  by  men 
whose  names  have  been  for  years  before  the  profes 
sion  associated  with  every  constituent  of  professional 
greatness.  These  men,  placed  above  the  competition 
of  general  business,  are  occupied  in  gathering  in 
discoveries,  in  trying  supposed  truths  under  every 


PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE.  233 

disadvantage,  and  with  every  precaution  against  fallacy, 
and  then  sending  forth  the  proven  results  of  their 
investigations.  We  must  not,  in  this  analysis  of  the 
components  of  the  profession  of  medicine,  lose  sight 
of  those  professional  martyrs,  who,  sacrificing  all 
occupations  of  ease  and  profit,  risk  fortune,  health, 
and  life  in  the  pursuit  of  scientific  truth.  Some 
inoculate  themselves  with  disgusting  and  poisonous 
diseases ;  others  pursue  truth  side  by  side  with  the 
pestilence,  until  the  fearful  race  terminates  in  death. 
In  this  general  survey  of  his  profession,  the  physician 
sees  yet  other  important  aids  and  appliances.  Asso 
ciations  of  medical  talent  issuing  annual  and  learned 
treatises  in  their  volumes  of  "  Transactions,"  giving 
an  abiding  place  to  every  established  fact,  or  subject 
for  further  investigation.  Medical  conventions  and 
national  pharmacopoeias,  the  la-tter  treating  of  every 
remedy  which  has  the  least  claim  to  respect,  and 
the  whole  undergoing  revision,  addition,  and  improve 
ment  at  stated  periods.  We  have  also  before  us 
medical  missions  and  medical  missionary  societies, 
in  the  words  of  Professor  Allison,  of  Edinburgh, 


234          PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE. 

establishing  "  the  intimate  connection  that  should  ever 
subsist  between  the  pursuit  of  scientific  knowledge, 
and  the  reception  of  the  blessed  truths  of  Christ 
ianity." 

The  glance  we  have  so  far  taken  over  the  pro 
fession  of  medicine,  rapid  as  it  has  been,  is  yet 
sufficient  to  show  that  it  is  not  sought,  in  the  words 
of  Lord  Bacon,  "as  a  couch  whereupon  to  rest  a 
searching  and  restless  spirit^  or  a  wandering  and 
variable  mind  to  walk  up  and  down  with  a  fair 
prospect,  or  a  tower  of  state  for  a  proud  mind  to 
raise  itself  upon,  or  a  fort  or  commanding  ground 
for  strife  and  contention,  or  a  shop  for  profit  and 
sale,  and  not  a  rich  store-house  for  the  glory  of  the 
Creator,  and  the  relief  of  man's  estate." 

All  these  various  fountains  of  knowledge  are 
irrigating  the  whole  profession  by  the  channels  of 
the  medical  press,  and  bearing  to  its  humblest  and 
most  remote  member  whatever  of  fact,  truth,  and 
wisdom  has  been  found  worth  the  freighting.  In  the 
various  modern  languages  we  have,  going  forth, 
periodicals  upon  the  profession  in  general,  or  upon 


PROFESSION     OF    MEDICINE.  235 

branches  of  it.  Most  of  these  journals  are  in  charge 
of  men  of  eminent  literary  and  professional  ability, 
and  any  one  number  of  either  of  the  leading  jour 
nals  presents  a  specimen  of  intellectual  ability  of 
which  not  the  profession  only,  but  human  nature 
may  well  be  proud.  Opening  by  chance  one  now 
lying  on  the  table,  we  find  thirty-two  periodicals  — 
English,  French,  German,  American,  on  its  exchange 
list  for  the  quarter.  To  present  an  idea  of  the  scope 
of  such  journals,  we  find  a  single  chance  number  to 
contain  thirteen  analytical  and  critical  reviews  of 
works  in  German,  French,  Italian,  and  English,  the 
works  being  generally  by  the  most  distinguished 
medical  authors  of  their  respective  countries.  Then, 
besides  medical  reports,  memoirs,  and  cases,  we  have, 
in  the  same  number,  fifteen  bibliographical  notices 
of  works  upon  chemistry,  diseases,  anatomy,  social 
problems,  and  natural  theology;  each  notice  being 
an  interesting  synopsis  of  the  work. 

Could  all  see  the  profession  of  medicine  even  in 
the  dim  and  feeble  light  by  which  we  have  endeav 
ored  to  show  its  broad  and  comprehensive  operations, 


236          PEG  FES  SI  ON     OF     MEDICINE. 

the  mind  which  could  charge  upon  such  a  pro 
fession  limited,  selfish,  and  interested  motives,  op 
posed  to  truth,  would  onlymanifest  its  own  incom- 
petency  to  understand  the  nature  and  tendency  of 
mental  action;  and  nothing  saves  the  many  who 
utter  such  illiberal  sentiments  from  contempt,  but  a 
general  allowance  for  the  blindness  in  which  they 
are  uttered  —  a  blindness  which  must  pertain  to 
those  not  educated  in  the  profession,  and  not  living 
under  its  obligations.  The  professional  man  sees, 
with  an  enlarged  vision,  into  regions  closed  to  his 
unprofessional  brother;  in  his  discourse  he  proclaims 
results  of  this  vast  system  of  moral,  intellectual,  and 
mechanical  machinery,  while  the  latter  forms  his  pos 
itive  opinions  upon  a  few  crude  and  disconnected 
facts,  or  supposed  facts,  seen  in  the  limited  circle  of 
his  own  untutored  experience  and  observation.  It 
is,  as  though  one  upon  an  eminence  looks  over  a 
broad  landscape,  and  speaks  of  its  brilliant  light, 
varied  hues,  and  strong  contrasts  of  color,  while  the 
man  blind  from  birth,  obstinately  contends  that  no 
such  things  exist,  and  that  all  is  of  one  uniform 


PROFESSION     OF    MEDICINE.  237 

darkness;  or,  it  is,  as  though  one  by  unaided  vision 
sees  only  a  black  speck  in  the  intellectual  atmosphere, 
while  the  telescopic  aid  of  art  and  science  shows  it 
to  be  brilliant  with  glittering  stars.  Such  consider 
ations  prevent  us  from  impugning  either  the  honesty, 
or  the  absolute  intellectual  ability  of  those  who  dog 
matize  boldly  upon  medical  subjects,  and  though  we 
must  still  wonder  at  their  imagining  themselves  more 
familiar  with  medicine,  embracing  a  range  of  sciences, 
than  with  any  other  single  science  or  language  which 
they  have  not  studied,  the  magnitude  and  boldness 
of  their  error  become  the  measure  of  their  ignorance, 
and  present  their  claim  for  forgiveness.  For  the 
benefit  of  all  such,  and  for  those  who  illiberally 
charge  upon  the  medical  profession  a  bigoted  adhe 
rence  to  a  limited  system,  or  to  selfish  interests, 
inconsistent  with  its  nature  and  mission,  a  few  reasons 
will  be  presented  why,  upon  the  very  constitution 
of  human  nature,  such  a  limited  action  is  morally 
impossible. 

The  love  of  truth  is  a  principle  implanted  in  the 
human   mind,   and   which,   in   all   ages,    and   in    all 


238          PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE. 

sciences,  has  asserted  its  influence  against  every  op 
posing  circumstance.  Under  its  direction  men  have 
surrendered  every  thing  else  dear  to  the  human  heart 
—  suffered  imprisonment,  chains,  ignominy,  banish 
ment,  and  death.  None  will  deny  these  facts. 

The  science  of  medicine,  in  its  very  nature,  must 
be  under  the  influence  of  this  principle,  because  it 
is  the  study  of  the  Deity  through  his  works.  Here, 
then,  we  have  a  law  of  nature,  imposing  upon  the 
science  of  medicine  a  no  less  boundary  than  pure 
truth;  and  the  next  inquiry  is  whether  the  modes 
of  medical  investigation  are  those  calculated  to  reach 
the  truth. 

We,  in  pursuit  of  the  answer  to  this  inquiry,  see 
the  human  mind,  such  as  it  is,  working  in  the  sci 
ence  of  medicine,  not  on  a  prescribed  line,  and  up 
to  a  limited  mark,  but  spreading  out  in  every  direction, 
according  to  its  inclination  and  powers,  every  man 
according  to  his  "proper  gift  of  God,  one  after  this 
manner,  and  another  after  that,"  and  each  class  of 
laborers  presenting  its  claim  to  the  discovery  of 
any  truth,  and  finding  reward  and  honor  in  the 


PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE.  239 

approbation  of  the  mass  of  his  co-laborers.  Here, 
then,  we  have  every  guarantee  that  attainable  truth 
shall  be  reached.  We  have  the  natural  love  of  this 
virtue,  we  have  the  efficiency  *  growing  out  of  a 
chosen  direction  and  concentration  of  power,  we  have 
scientific  rivalry,  vigilance  and  ambition,  and,  finally, 
we  have  the  interests  of  every  professional  working 
man,  stimulating  him  to  make  the  acquaintance  of 
these  elaborated  truths,  and  to  apply  them  practically 
in  the  treatment  of  disease. 

Whilst  the  profession  of  medicine  is  thus  working 
in  the  main  business  of  its  vocation,  it  casts  rich 
contributions  upon  subordinate  and  collateral  sciences. 
To  these  sciences  and  their  contributions  the  popular 
mind  gives  its  admiration,  and  does  not  see  that 
they  are  but  chance  jewels  dug  up  on  the  way  to 
the  great  mine.  Look  at  Comparative  Anatomy  and 
Chemistry,  Botany  and  Zoology,  Geology  and  Min 
eralogy,  and,  in  the  words  of  a  distinguished  medical 
writer,  "strip  these  sciences  of  what  has  been  con 
tributed  to  them  by  physicians,  or  by  those  who 
have  had  the  discipline  of  a  medical  education,  and 


240          PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE. 

a    chasm    is    left    which    it   would    be    difficult    to 
fill." 

A  profession  such  as  this  is,  rests  upon  principles 
far  above  the  dogmas  of  any  master,  school,  or  Sir 
Oracle.  It  has  every  protection  against  fallacy  which 
human  reason  can  know,  and  is  alike  independent 
of  the  eccentricities  of  brilliant  individual  genius,  and 
of  the  follies  and  vices  of  its  unworthy  members. 
Whilst  there  can  be  no  influence  sufficiently  exten 
sive  to  warp  the  common  sense  and  common  judgment 
of  all,  the  intellect  of  any  single  individual  may  be  sub 
jected  to  honest  or  dishonest  influences  leading  to 
fallacy  or  to  wilful  deception:  hence  the  student  of 
medicine  learns,  as  the  first  step  in  the  search  after 
truth,  to  place  no  reliance  upon  individual  authority, 
farther  than  such  authority  may  be  sustained  by  rea 
son,  and  the  testimony  of  established  facts.  Brilliant 
names,  therefore,  when  they  leave  the  proper  ground 
of  scientific  truth  to  wander  in  the  regions  'of  fancy, 
are  no  authority  for  him,  however  imposing  they 
may  be  upon  the  public.  They  are  not  suns,  but 
meteors,  and  equally  unintluential  is  the  clamoring 


PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE.  241 

testimony  of  the  applauding  crowds  who  may  be 
dazzled  by  them.  The  medical  student  is  too  famil 
iar  with  such  things  in  his  profession;  and  out  of 
it  he  remembers  that  Hume  and  Gibbon  were  infi 
dels,  and  that  France  dethroned  Christianity  to  set 
up  the  goddess  of  reason,  and  yet  Christianity  resumed 
its  place  and  power  —  because  it  is  true. 

The  misapplication  or  misunderstanding  of  a  single 
word  is  often  a  fruitful  source  of  a  train  of  false 
ideas,  false  reasoning,  and  false  conclusions.  This  is 
the  case  in  regard  to  the  word  "  system,"  as  used 
in  popular  com7ersation  upon  medical  science,  and 
some  considerations  will  now  be  presented  upon  this 
subject,  which  should  be  borne  in  mind  by  all  de 
sirous  of  forming  a  correct  judgment  upon  the  pro 
fession  of  medicine.  The  word  "  system  "  as  applied 
to  any  medical  dogma,  theory,  or  scheme,  on  the 
one  hand,  and  to  the  science  of  medicine  on  the 
other,  naturally  suggests  the  idea  that  the  science  of 
medicine  is  limited  to  some  other  and  opposing 
dogma,  or  theory,  to  maintain  which  all  its  energies 

are  directed.     Hence,  the  advocates  of    any  peculiar 
11 


242          PROFESSION     OF    MEDICINE. 

dogma  are  fond  of  using  the  terms  —  new  system  and 
old  system  —  new  school  and  old  school  —  and  by  the 
acknowledgment  of  such  distinctions,  a  whole  train  of 
error  is  founded.  From  what  has  already  been  said, 
the  impropriety  of  such  an  application  of  terms,  it  is 
thought,  must  be  apparent.  A  science  which  seeks 
for  truth  cannot  be  limited  by  any  system,  but  must 
pick  up  truth  how  and  where  it  can;  hence,  that 
of  medicine,  in  its  very  nature,  repudiates  systems. 

"  In  the  present  state  of  medical  science,  we  feel 
well  assured  that  the  only  true  system  is  the  absence 
of  all  systems.  JSTo  premature  attempt  to  generalize 
can  have  more  than  a  temporary  success.  Be  it 
ours  to  seek  for  light  wherever  it  shall  break  in ;  to 
amass  knowledge,  even  if  we  have  to  pick  it  from 
the  mire;  to  draw  wisdom  from  the  errors  and  fol 
lies  of  our  rivals,  without  disdaining  to  profit  by 
their  success;"  and,  then,  "other  systems  will  pass 
away,  ours  will  be  permanent;  nourished,  indeed,  to 
some  extent,  by  the  very  elements  which  come  from 
their  decay,  as  the  eternal  oak  flourishes  and  grows 
green  for  ages  from  the  decomposition  of  the  tran- 


PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE.  243 

sient  vegetation,  of  which  generations  are  springing 
up  and  perishing  around  it." 

Before  a  correct  and  exact  mode  of  investigation 
was  established,  all  science,  morality,  and  religion, 
were  wrapped  up  in  the  dogmas  of  the  schools  and 
of  the  fathers,  and  men  surrendered  their  minds  to 
captivity  and  submission.  Astronomy  and  chemistry, 
so  exact  now,  wandered  in  the  mazes  of  astrology 
and  alchemy.  Visionary  theories  agitated  the  pro 
fession  of  medicine;  and  as  there  was  no  law  of 
truth  and  fact  by  which  to  try  them,  there  was  no 
limit  to  the  wildness  of  unrestrained  and  imaginative 
intellects.  Taught  by  such  experience,  all  true  science 
now  repudiates  systems  and  theories,  or  only  recog 
nizes  them  as  based  upon  established  facts,  and  as 
offering  a  reasonable  supposition  or  direction  for  seek 
ing  the  law  of  those  facts  —  a  conjecture  as  to  the 
right  road,  formed  upon  the  best  existing  knowledge, 
but  which  conjecture  a  little  farther  progress  may 
show  to  be  wrong. 

That  investigation  which  works  within  a  system, 
has  too  limited  and  narrow  a  space  to  embrace  the 


244  PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE, 


whole  truth:  a  system  can  no  more  contain  the 
whole  science  of  medicine  than  a  part  can  contain 
the  whole.  But,  in  their  subordinate  relations,  all 
systems  may  be  made  tributary  to  science.  For  in 
stance,  a  certain  series  of  facts  is  observed,  their 
phenomena,  and  the  relations  of  those  facts  are  seen 
and  admitted  by  all  —  there  is  no  dispute  or  differ 
ence  in  regard  to  them.  Genius,  taking  the  facts, 
endeavors  to  devise  or  discover  a  theory  or  law 
which  shall  embrace  all  of  them.  Different  indi 
viduals  suggest  equally  plausible  theories;  each  has 
its  partizans,  investigation  is  carried  on  in  various 
directions,  to  confirm  the  views  of  one  set  of  theo 
rists,  and  to  confute  those  of  others.  In  the  pro 
gress  of  this  investigation  new  facts  are  discovered 
which  none  of  the  theories  will  cover,  and  however 
satisfactory  and  beautiful  they  have,  before  this, 
appeared,  they  must  now  give  way  to  those  having 
a  broader  foundation  in  truth. 

The  entire  profession  of  medicine  may,  then,  be 
in  accord  as  to  certain  facts,  but  may  differ  as  to 
the  general  law  influencing  these  facts.  The  facts 


PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE.  245 

alone  are  part  of  trie  profession.  Such  theories  are 
very  different  from  the  wild  schemes  and  visions 
which  are  engendered  in  some  individual  brain,  and 
then  the  facts  to  sustain  them  imagined  or  asserted. 
Fever  and  inflammation  have  both  afforded  the  mate 
rial  for  many  theories,  and  yet  the  facts  constituting 
these  diseases  have  been  apparent  to  all.  Difference 
of  theory  does  not  necessarily  imply  difference  of 
treatment;  indeed,  the  treatment  of  a  disease  upon 
which  all  are  agreed,  may  be  one  of  the  facts  upon 
which  is  founded  different  theories  as  to  the  nature 
of  the  disease.  One  set  of  theorists  contend  that  the 
phenomena  of  inflammation  depend  upon  an  increased 
action  of  the  blood-vessels  of  the  part,  and  hence 
the  heat,  swelling,  redness,  and  pain;  other  theorists 
say  that  these  symptoms  are  the  result  of  a  dimin 
ished  action,  a  want  of  tone  in  the  vessels,  in  con 
sequence  of  which  the  blood  accumulates  and 
stagnates  in  them,  Both  theorists,  however  much 
they  may  argue  about  their  opinions,  agree  upon 
their  remedies,  but  one  explains  their  action  by  say 
ing  that  the  remedies  allay  excitement,  diminish  tone, 


246          PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE. 

and  the  other  contends  that  they  impart  strength 
and  power  to  the  debilitated  vessels. 

Many  of  the  theories  and  systems  in  medicine 
have  been  splendid  monuments  of  the  power  and 
wealth  of  the  human  mind ;  but  as  the  rich  materi 
als  of  their  creation  lie  scattered  in  ruin,  they  emblem 
the  fallibility  of  the  most  exalted  human  intellect, 
and  show  that  no  genius  can  dare  to  leave  the 
foundation  of  fact  and  truth,  and  yet  hope  to  erect 
a  firm  and  enduring  structure.  The  science  of  med 
icine  sits  in  judgment  upon  them  all,  and  examines 
the  claim  of  each  in  calm  and  philosophic  impar 
tiality,  but  refuses  to  any  the  privilege  of  fastening 
its  link  upon  the  chain  of  established  law,  until  it 
presents  that  link  in  all  the  unyielding  firmness  and 
crystal  transparency  of  truth. 

The  science  of  medicine,  then,  by  its  very  nature, 
by  the  principles  which  govern  the  human  mind,  by 
every  stimulus  of  interest  and  ambition,  can  limit 
itself  to  nothing  shprt  of  attainable  truth,  and  it 
cannot  be  limited  by,  or  bound  to  any  system.  In 
the  science  of  medicine  there  can  be  no  "  old  school " 


PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE.  247 


or  "  new  school, "  and  the  use  of  such  terms  creates 
a  false  impression,  and  misleads  the*  popular  judgment 
in  regard  to  any  scheme  or  pretension  which  aspires 
to  independence  of  the  profession  of  medicine.  It 
has  been  endeavored  to  set  forth  the  means,  powers, 
combinations,  and  appliances  necessary  in  so  extensive 
an  inquiry  as  that  of  professional  truth,  and  they 
are  seen  to  be  such  as  impart  efficiency  to  the  hu 
man  intellect  and  offer  the  best  guards  against  fallacy. 
The  decision  of  such  a  scheme  of  mental  and  scien 
tific  operations  ought  surely  to  claim  respect  and 
confidence  from  the  popular  mind.  History  has  sus 
tained  its  decisions  upon  by-gone  medical  delusions, 
no  matter  how  strongly  those  delusions  have  been 
supported  by  popular  enthusiasm,  and  it  is  certain 
that,  what  the  science  of  medicine  now  pronounces 
to  be  delusions  will  prove  to  be  such.  If  any  system 
or  scheme  sets  itself  above  that  professional  investi 
gation  which  is  bound  to  seek  for  truth,  and  claims 
to  be  a  new  school  or  system,  the  claim  and  the 
pretension  are  alone  proof  that  it  is  not  true,  If  it 
contains  any  grain  of  truth,  according  to  the  laws 


248.       PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE. 

which  mind  must  obey,  that  single  grain  must  be 
found  and  added  to  the  stores  of  general  medical 
science.  It  is  no  argument  to  say  that  any  "  new 
school "  system  or  sect  has  its  colleges,  hospitals,  and 
journals,  independent  of  general  medicine.  If  such 
is  the  case,  it  only  proves  that  the  disciples  of  such 
an  arrangement  have  shut  themselves  within  a  nar 
row  circle,  and  prohibited  themselves  from  the  broad 
search  for  truth,  wherever  it  may  be  found;  they 
have  bound  themselves  to  a  one-man  dogma,  to  a 
system,  and  not  to  a  science.  As  well  might  theo 
logy  be  taught  by  schools  of  Swedenborgianism  and 
Mormonism;  and  if  they  become  schools  of  general 
science  and  theology,  they  cease,  of  course,  to  be 
those  of  a  sect. 

Persons  who  regard  with  favor  some  new  scheme 
or  pretence  in  the  art  of  healing,  strengthen  their 
faith,  and  justify  th.eir  opinions,  by  pointing  to  peo 
ple  in  the  respectable  ranks  of  society  who  have 
given  it  their  support.  It  may  be  that  they  name 
those  distinguished  in  the  literary  world,  or  famed  for 
their  eloquence  in  the  pulpit,  and  ask  triumphantly, 


PROFESSION     OF    MEDICINE.  240 


if  it  be  not  true,  would  such  intelligent  persons  as 
these  be  found  supporting  this  system?  It  is,  per 
haps,  too  common  a  mistake  to  imagine,  because 
some  particular  merit,  or  accidental  circumstance, 
elevates  an  individual  to  a  superior  station,  that  he 
necessarily  has  a  correct  judgment  upon  all  matters. 
It  may  be  that  the  very  qualities  which  give  him 
distinction,  unfit  him  for  close  reasoning,  or  accuracy 
of  judgment.  If  an  excursive  imagination,  ingenious 
speculations,  or  that  faculty  of  view  and  argument 
which  can  make  the  bad  appear  the  better  reason, 
are  the  causes  of  distinction,  the  chances  are  that 
the  individual  would  be  a  bad  interpreter  of  the 
truth,  even  were  he  acquainted  with  the  particular 
sciences  in  which  it  is  sought.  But  when  an  indi 
vidual,  unacquainted  with  any  one  of  the  series  of 
sciences  which  constitute  the  profession  of  medicine, 
undertakes  to  give  the  support  of  his  name  and  opin 
ions  to  some  system  in  opposition  to  general  medical 
science,  this  act  proves  him  to  be  wanting  in  com 
mon  intelligence  and  correct  judgment,  whatever  may 
be  the  general  intelligence  of  the  class  or  occupation 


250  PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE. 

lie  represents.  His  course  is  no  less  absurd  than 
would  be  that  of  an  individual  who,  without  any 
knowledge  of  the  sounds,  letters,  construction  or 
meaning  of  a  language,  should  dispute  the  inter 
pretation  of  that  language  by  those  skilled  in  its 
knowledge. 

The  adherents  of  any  special  system,  whether  they 
may  be  its  professors,  or  its  disciples  and  admirers, 
are  incompetent  to  judge  of  truth  independent  of 
their  system.  Their  minds  are  filled  with  that  and 
nothing  else.  The  student  of  general  medical  science 
sees,  that  while  the  stream  of  scientific  truth  has 
pursued  its  steady  course  from  age  to  age,  many 
such  systems,  schemes,  and  wild  imaginings,  have 
risen  on  its  banks,  and  attracted  the  clamoring  ad 
miration  of  unthinking  multitudes,  whose  fidelit}^  only 
endures  until  a  new  pretence  raises  them  from  that 
which  preceded  it.  The  student  of  general  medicine 
sees  these  peculiar  notions  in  every  age,  making  the 
same  claims,  presenting  the  same  evidence,  sus 
tained  by  the  same  enthusiasm,  and  pointing  among 


PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE.  251 

their  followers  to   persons  of    the  highest  rank    and 
respectability,  and  pretensions  to  intelligence. 

If  the  retrospect  runs  back  into  the  days  of  classic 
antiquity,  pagan  gods  aTe  seen  to  have  been  infal 
lible  physicians,  with  emperors  for  their  patients, 
and  whole  nations  testifying  to  their  skill  and  suc 
cess.  In  more  modern  times  and  countries,  the 
altars  of  saints  are  seen  covered  with  votive  offerings 
in  wax,  silver  or  gold,  representing  arms,  legs,  hearts, 
heads,  and  whole  figures  of  those  whom  the  saint 
has  cured  of  disease.  The  medical  student  can  refer 
to  one  pill  whose  virtues  were  testified  to  by  seven 
teen  earls,  eight  viscounts,  seventeen  lords,  fifteen 
bishops,  six  right  honorables,  seventeen  coronets,  five 
reverends,  and  many  members  of  parliament,  and  yet 
the  name  of  that  pill  is  no  longer  heard. 

When  any  individual,  representing  a  respectable 
station  in  society,  is  asked  to  give  his  name  to  the 
support  of  quackery,  or  novel  and  peculiar  systems, 
let  him  remember  that  while  he  may  be  flattered  by 
his  importance,  in  the  eyes  of  charlatans,  quacks,  and 
pretenders,  science  smiles  in  pitv  and  contermoL  to 


252          PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE. 


see  him  registering  his  name  among  the  long  list 
of  those  who  have  certified  to  their  own  ignorance, 
vanity  and  folly. 

Continuing  our  review  of -some  of  the  prominent 
delusions  to  which  reference  has  been  made,  it  is 
remembered  that  all  France  was  once  mad  after  the 
quack  Mantacino,  when  all  the  continent,  with  a 
Prussian  empress  and  princess,  were  subject  to  the 
delusions  of  the  count  and  countess  Cagliostro,  who 
professed  to  restore,  not  only  health,  but  youth  and 
beauty,  and  received  five  thousand  louis  d'  ors  as  a 
single  fee.  Mrs.  Mopps'  "  Crazy  Sally,"  as  she  called 
herself,  ruled  the  popular  mind  of  England,  patrician 
and  plebeian,  and  drove  once  a  week  to  the  Grecian 
Coffee  House  in  a  coach  and  six,  with  outriders. 
"  We  all  remember, "  says  the  historian  of  this  folly, 
"that  the  absurdity  and  impracticability  of  her  own 
promises  and  enjoyments,  were  by  no  means  equal 
to  the  expectations  and  credulity  of  those  who  ran 
after  her;  that  is,  of  all  ranks  and  conditions  of 
people,  from  the  lowest  laborer  or  mechanic,  up  to 
those  of  the  most  exalted  station;  several  of  whom 


PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE.  253 

nut  -wl/  did  not  hesitate  to  believe  implicitly  tiie 
niobi  extravagant  assertions,  of  an  ignorant,  illib 
eral,  drunken  female  savao-e,  but  even  solicited  her 
company  —  at  least  seemed  to  enjoy  her  society." 
Add  to  these,  the  advent  of  mesmerism,  the  reign 
of  Perkinism  and  "  tracto  ration." 

No  delusion  of  the  present,  however  strongly  it 
may  be  supported,  has  more  general,  more  respecta 
ble,  or  more  intelligent  unprofessional  advocates  than 
had  those  past  medical  schemes  which  all  unite  now 
in  calling  folly  and  delusion. 

Familiar  as  the  student  of  medicine  is  with  such 
and  similar  transactions,  he  may  well  be  excused  for 
paying  more  deference  to  the  calm,  cautious,  and 
philosophic  decisions  of  his  profession,  than  to  vis 
ionary  schemes  and  fanciful  systems,  however  sup 
ported  by  the  authority  of  names,  rank,  and 
numbers. 

Whilst  showing  the  unavoidable  obligations  which 
the  profession  of  medicine  has  to  the  pursuit  of  truth, 
and  the  varied  means  by  which  it  pursues  the  in 
vestigation,  it  cannot  be  supposed,  by  any,  that  it  is 


254          PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE. 

claimed  for  every  individual  practicing  the  healing 
art,  even  under  the  sanction  of  a  college  certificate, 
that  he  represents  that  profession;  —  far  from  it. 
Unfortunately  the  popular  judgment  of  the  profession 
is  generally  formed  from  those  members  who  mis 
represent  it;  and  the  illiberal,  and  ungentlemanly 
intercourse  which  grows  out  of  professional  rivalry, 
has  given  rise  to  a  proverb,  which  is  passed  from 
mouth  to  mouth,  conveying  a  fallacy  in  reference  to 
the  profession  at  large.  We  shall  endeavor  to  dis 
abuse  the  public  mind  of  that  fallacy.  "Doctors 
differ  "  is  the  general  expression  of  the  general  senti 
ment,  and  if  it  is  meant  that  like  rival  statesmen, 
rival  authors,  rival  mechanics,  they  manifest  the 
jealousies,  and  business  animosities  of  human  nature, 
there  is  no  disputing  the  unhappy  fact;  indeed,  it 
may  be  admitted  that  their  differences,  or  business 
quarrels,  are  more  conspicuous,  perhaps  more  frequent, 
because,  in  the  pursuit  of  their  vocation,  they  are 
brought  into  personal  contact  with  each  other.  But 
the  popular  interpretation  of  the  proverb,  "Doctors 
differ,"  means  much  more  than  business  quarrels. 


PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE.          255 

It  means,  that  each  individual  of  the  profession,  is 
the  embodiment  of  certain  professional  principles, 
which  differ  from  those  held  by  each  other  individ 
ual,  and  that  the  difference  is  a  legitimate  one.  It 
implies  the  fallacy  that  each  practitioner  is  the  foun 
der,  or  inventor  of  his  own  peculiar  system  of  prac 
tice.  From  the  nature  of  the  view  we  have  taken 
of  the  profession  of  medicine,  it  must  be  seen  that 
they  cannot  be  so,  but,  in  proportion  as  the  prac 
titioners  of  medicine  are  instructed  in  the  scientific 
truths  and  principles  of  their  profession,  they  must 
agree.  They  represent  general  truths,  not  individual 
opinions.  Information,  with  honesty,  must  produce 
concord.  But  if  illy  instructed,  each  practitioner, 
instead  of  being  influenced  by  fixed  principles,  may 
become  the  advocate  of  ignorant  and  opposite  opin 
ions.  For  instance:  a  case  of  disease  may  be  marked 
by  known  and  determined  symptoms,  and  for  these 
symptoms  or  their  cause,  there  may  be  a  fixed  and 
rational  mode  of  treatment.  Now,  gather  around 

'       o 

this  case,  practitioners  who  are  badly  informed,  igno 
rant  of  the  mode  of  investigating  disease,  ignorant 


256  PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE. 

of  the  signification  of  symptoms,  and  ignorant  of 
their  management  when  ascertained,  and  each  one 
will  make  his  own  guess,  and  maintain  it  with  a 
warmth  proportioned  to  its  want  of  truth.  Bring  to 
the  same  case  well  informed  practitioners  from 
America,  from  England,  from  Germany,  from  France, 
and  they  will  agree  as  to  the  nature  of  the  disease,  and 
as  to  the  principles  of  its  treatment. 

Differences,  therefore,  among  medical  men,  however 
disgraceful  to  the  individuals,  cannot  justly  be  im 
puted  to  the  profession  of  medicine.  From  these 
circumstances  it  is  evident  that  none  are  worthy  of 
confidence,  as  practitioners  of  medicine,  but  those 
who,  with  intellectual  capacity  for  acquirement,  have 
had  mental  training,  time  and  opportunity  for  study 
ing  the  vast  range  of  medical  science,  and  that  in 
dustry,  application,  and  sense  of  moral  obligation 
which  ensure  the  fulfillment  of  the  high  responsibil 
ities  of  the  profession  of  medicine.  Such  a  rule  of 
judgment  would  exclude  a  great  many  who  are 
now  successful  practitioners,  but  if  people  would  only 
keep  before  them  the  common  sense  view  of  the 


PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE.  257 

science  of  medicine,  and  see  it  not  a  string  of  mys 
tery  and  magic,  but  one  requiring,  for  even  the 
most  talented,  long  and  laborious  application,  they 
would  exercise  a  safer  discrimination  as  to  the  quali 
fications  of  their  medical  attendants.  There  are,  un 
doubtedly,  many  practitioners  who  honestly  believe 
themselves  qualified  for  the  duties  they  undertake, 
simply  because  they  have  not  penetrated  sufficiently 
far  within  the  domain  of  medical  knowledge  to 
perceive  its  broad  extent  and  varied  character,  or 
else  are  naturally  incapable  of  this  extended  vision. 
Such  ignorance  may  give  a  boldness  in  proffering 
relief,  which  better  information  would  very  much 
moderate. 

Besides  those  too  credulous  persons  who  believe 
in  all  medical  novelties  and  pretensions,  there  are 
others  who  repeat  the  maxim  "nature  is  the  best 
physician,"  and  refuse  all  aid  for  their  maladies. 
Such  sceptics  imagine  that  their  view  is  sustained, 
because  the  most  intelligent  teachers  of  medical  sci 
ence  inculcate  that  our  wisdom  is  to  be  derived  from 
the  observation  of  the  laws  of  nature.  There  is  no 


258  PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE. 

relation,  whatever,  between  the  popular  opinion  to 
which  we  have  alluded,  and  scientific  obedience  to 
the  laws  of  nature.  An  acquaintance  with  these  laws 
implies  a  vast  amount  of  information,  and  teaches 
the  natural  means  by  which  their  irregularities  and 
aberrations  are  to  be  corrected ;  and  teaches  also  the 
certain  and  overwhelming  danger,  which  permits  the 
aberrations  of  nature's  laws  to  go  without  correction. 
If  an  individual  had  one  of  his  arteries  divided,  and 
saw  his  life  blood  pouring  forth  with  fearful  rapidity, 
he  would  not  wait  and  say  "  nature  is  the  best  phy 
sician,"  but  he  would  apply  to  some  one  who,  from 
the  observation  of  the  processes  of  nature,  has  learned 
how  to  stop  the  flow  of  blood.  As  great  and  as 
fatal  injuries,  from  the  progress  of  disease,  may  be 
going  on  in  internal  organs;  the  truster  in  nature, 
or  rather,  the  willful  contemner  of  nature  does  not 
see  it,  and  therefore  does  nothing  and  dies  of  a 
"medicable  wound,"  which  would  be  very  apparent, 
to  the  physician  whose  eye  had  been  taught  to  search 
it  out.  It  is  true,  nature  is  the  best  physician,  but 
she  requires  an  industrious  and  devoted  worship  to 


PROFESSION     OP     MEDICINE.  259 

secure  her  attendance,  and  is  very  apt  to  visit  the 
penalty  of  disease  and  death  upon  those  who  neg 
lect  her.  The  best  ministers  of  nature,  then,  are 
those  who  most  assiduously  study  her  laws;  and  an 
acquaintance  with  those  laws  constitutes  extensive 
learning.  Unfortunately,  too  many  of  those  who  look 
to  the  physicians  for  medical  aid,  expect  him  to  be 
the  bold  controller  of  nature,  instead  of  her  vigilant 
observer,  faithful  follower,  and  intelligent  assistant. 
Certain  and  mechanical  results  are  confidently  looked 
for  where  true  and  high  science  teach  that  nothing 
but  probabilities  could  be  reached  by  human  skill. 
Correct  scientific  or  professional  knowledge  increases 
those  probabilities,  but  those  who  study  the  science 
of  medicine  most  profoundly,  know,  that  while  their 
chances  of  arresting  disease  depend  upon  the  extent 
and  variety  of  their  acquirements,  nothing  attainable 
by  human  faculties  can  give  the  power  of  certainty. 
Hence,  the  conscientious  practitioner  of  medicine  is 
stimulated  to  add  to  his  professional  attainments,  and 
feels  it  to  be  a  moral  duty  to  go  from  one  acquire 
ment  to  another. 


260         PROFESSION     OF    MEDICINE. 

One  so  enlightened  will  promise  no  certain  cure 
for  the  slightest  ailment,  for  he  well  knows  that 
under  the  mysterious  agency  of  vital  laws,  which  are 
hidden  "by  Providence  from  the  scrutiny  of  man, 
death  may  result  from  the  slightest  derangement  of 
the  human  organism:  —  a  scratch  may  terminate  in 
fatal  mortification;  lock-jaw  and  death  result  from 
the  extraction  of  a  tooth,  or  even  a  too  close  clipping 
of  the  nails;  and  the  sting  of  a  wasp  has  been 
known  to  terminate  life  in  fifteen  minutes.  Hence 
the  well  informed  physician,  although  he  may  be 
confident  of  his  abilities  to  select  with  knowledge 
and  judgment  among  the  various  remedies  with 
which  he  may  be  familiar,  and  though  he  may  know 
that  they  are  naturally  suited  to  the  case  he  may 
be  treating,  awaits  with  cautious  hope,  rather  than  bold 
assurance,  a  result  it  is  not  with  him  to  determine. 

The  uncertainty  which  attends  the  profession  of 
medicine,  is  applicable  to  every  avocation  connected 
with  the  laws  of  nature.  All  such  professions  must 
acknowledge  the  same  subjection  to  influences  beyond 
their  control,  as  that  which  attaches  to  the  ail 


PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE.  261 

whose  province  is  to  deal  with  the  living,  thinking 
human  being,  and  must  submit  all  their  hopes  to 
contingencies,  which  they  can  never  foresee  nor 
prevent. 

The  agriculturist,  who,  with  a  practical  knowledge 
of  his  pursuit,  has  an  intelligent  acquaintance  with 
the  principles  which  influence  it  —  with  the  control 
of  climates  and  seasons,  and  with  the  nature  of 
soils  —  has  a  much  greater  chance  of  success,  than 
one  who  works  in  blindness  and  ignorance,  and,  du 
ring  a  series  of  years,  his  average  returns  will  be 
much  greater  and  more  secure;  but  with  the  appli 
cation  of  all  his  knowledge  and  skill,  he  cannot,  on 
any  one  year,  feel  an  assurance  of  success.  Droughts 
may  parch  his  fields,  or  floods  drown  them,  frosts 
nip  his  fruits  in  the  bud,  or  blight  his  grain  in  the 
ear. 

The  prudent  and  intelligent  navigator,  carefully 
studies  the  currents  which  sweep  noiselessly  through 
the  ocean,  and  the  laws  which  govern  the  winds 
blowing  over  its  surface,  and  when  his  vessel  is  trusted 
to  this  vast  machinery  of  nature,  it  is  in  no  igno- 


262  PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE. 

ranee  of  the  forces  and  powers  to  which  it  is  sub 
jected.  The  addition  made  of  late  years  to  the 
stores  of  nautical  knowledge  in  all  its  branches,  has 
not  only  shortened  the  time  of  distant  voyages,  but 
added  to  the  total  average  security  with  which  the 
ocean  is  traversed ;  and  it  is  evident  that  the  proba 
bilities  of  a  safe  voyage  will  be  greater  for  the  vessel, 
in  proportion  to  the  intelligence  and  professional 
acquirements  of  those  having  her  in  charge.  But, 
the  finest  ship  that  ever  floated,  navigated  with  all 
the  skill  that  man's  intellect  can  display,  may  never 
reach  her  port  —  may  be  cast,  a  shattered  wreck, 
on  the  shore,  or  if  she  be  brought  into  harbor,  it 
may  be  dismantled,  rigging,  spars,  and  cargo  all  gone, 
and  yet,  in  this  crippled  condition,  she  may  be  the 
witness  and  trophy  of  more  nautical  science  than  if 
she  had  made  her  voyage  unharmed. 

Such  considerations  apply  with  yet  greater  force 
to  the  art  of  medicine,  which  deals,  not  only  with 
nature  and  its  physical  law,  but  with  the  moral  and 
intellectual  constituent  in  man;  and  this  wonderful 
combination  of  average  and  increasing  success,  with 


PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE.  263 

an  ever  existing  uncertainty,  is  a  beautiful  exhibition 
of  the  harmonious  laws  by  which  the  wisdom  of 
Providence  reconciles  apparent  contrariety.  A  gen 
eral  and  progressive  success  is  given  to  stimulate  man 
to  general  and  progressive  exertion;  but  were  he  to 
reach  certainty,  where  the  laws  of  nature  are  con 
cerned,  he  would  be  robbing  the  Deity  of  his  pre 
rogative,  and  become  independent  of  his  Maker ;  and 
hence,  all  the  arrangements  and  protections  of  science 
and  philosophy  are  prostrated  before  the  asserted 
omnipotence  of  the  Deity,  and  yet  man  has  no 
excuse  to  refrain  from  the  acquisition  of  knowledge. 
It  is  an  ignorance  of,  or  want  of  reflection  upon 
these  principles  which  forms  the  foundation  for  the 
prevalence  of  -quackery.  The  pretender  to  medical 
science  meets  the  popular  expectation  by  promising 
infallible  remedies  for  every  disease.  The  quack, 
however,  is  not  always  an  imposter.  He  partakes 
of  the  popular  ignorance,  and  popular  expectation, 
and  promises  infallibility  because  he  believes  infalli 
bility  to  be  a  possibility;  and  ignorant  of  the  labo 
rious  process  of  scientific  induction,  believes  that  he 


264          PROFESSION     OF    MEDICINE. 

can  jump  at  the  results  of  those  processes,  as  cer 
tainly  as  those  who  reach  them  by  the  steps  of 
learning. 

The  reasonable  expectations  of  professional  useful 
ness  being  thus  lost  sight  of — the  common  sense 
means  —  those  in  which  cause  and  effect  bear  an 
apparent  relation,  are  set  aside  also,  and  to  accomplish 
wonderful  expectations,  wonderful  means  are  resorted 
to  —  means  whose  mode  of  action  is  as  incompre 
hensible,  as  their  expected  effects  are  inconsistent 
with  the  teachings  of  nature,  and  the  designs  of 
Providence. 

For  all  this  ignorance,  misconception  and  error,  a 
fearful  retribution  is  visited  upon  the  community.  It 
pays  the  penalty  of  half  its  life,  and  consequently 
half  its  usefulness  and  happiness.  With  all  the  ele 
ments  of  health  and  long  life  in  our  country,  sta 
tistics  lead  to  the  fearful  conclusion  that  our  average 
length  of  life  is  but  little,  if  any  more  than  half 
that  enjoyed  by  overcrowded,  overworked,  vicious,  and 
half-starved  Europe.  There,  some  care  is  taken  that 
those  to  whom  is  entrusted  the  health  and  lives  of 


PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE.          265 

the  people  shall  be  qualified  for  their  duties  by 
suitable  education.  Here,  every  ignorant  or  conceited 
pretender  is  permitted  to  assume  the  solemn  respon 
sibility  of  managing  the  health  of  his  fellow-citizens, 
and  their  lives  become  the  plaything  of  his  blind 
folly  and  vain  presumption. 

That  so  terrible  an  evil  as  that  which  results  from 
the  existing  popular  notions  of  the  art  of  healing, 
should  permanently  continue  in  an  enlightened  com 
munity  or  age  is  impossible.  The  dawn  of  a  better 
day  is  seen  in  the  fact  that  the  Executive  of  the 
state  of  New  York  has  made  special  mention  of  the 
subject  of  medical  education.  The  following  is  taken 
from  a  message  of  the  late  governor  of  New  York: 
"No  subject  more  universally  affects  all  classes,  and 
all  members  of  the  community,  than  that  of  the 
public  health.  I  therefore  earnestly  request  your 
attention  to  the  existing  laws  on  the  subject,  and 
suggest  their  careful  review  and  amendment,  especially 
with  a  view  to  secure  the  benefit  of  the  combined 
experience  of  scientific  and  learned  men  throughout 

the  state,  with  respect  to  the  origin,  the  causes,  the 
12 


260          PROFESSION     OF    MEDICINE. 

progress  and  the  treatment  of  all  malignant  or  in 
fectious  diseases.  It  may  also  be  well  to  consider 
whether  the  time  has  not  arrived  when  the  state  is 
called  upon  to  contribute  its  aid,  more  efficiently 
than  it  has  hitherto  done,  to  advance  the  cause  of 
medical  education.  Every  inhabitant  of  the  state,  at 
some  time  or  other,  feels  the  need  of  the  physician, 
and  is  interested  that  he  should  be  learned  and 
skillful." 

"Learned  and  skillful,"  yes!  these  are  the  requi 
sites,  but  how  are  they  to  be  attained?  There  are 
medical  schools  in  the  north,  the  south,  the  east, 
and  the  west,  and  every  year  sees  these  schools 
sending  forth  crowds  of  young  men  certified  as  being 
qualified,  "  learned  and  skillful "  in  the  art  of  healing, 
and  this  after  a  term  of  study  too  short  to  acquire 
thoroughly  any  one  of  thes  ciences,  which,  in  the 
aggregate,  make  up  the  profession  of  medicine.  Al 
most  every  country  neighborhood  sees  some  young 
man  too  sickly,  too  lazy,  or  perhaps  too  stupid  to 
learn  a  mechanical  pursuit,  go  off'  to  study  medicine, 
provided  that,  for  two  or  three  winters,  he,  or  his 


PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE.  267 

friends  can  raise  a  few  hundred  dollars;  and  at  the 
end  of  this  time  he  comes  back  a  qualified  doctor, 
with  a  diploma  in  his  pocket.  Every  one  knows 
that  he  was  entirely  deficient  in  that  preliminary 
education  which  is  the  key  to  professional  knowledge. 
The  people  soon  learn  to  feel  as  much  respect  for 
the  spontaneous  quack  of  the  neighborhood,  as  for 
him  of  college  growth,  or  perhaps  the  natural 
shrewdness  and  intelligence  of  the  former  give  him 
an  advantage.  Of  course  so  long  as  the  granting 
of  diplomas  is  a  mere  trade,  and  medical  schools  are 
but  shops  for  their  sale,  the  multiplicity  of  these 
shops  begets  a  competition  which  lowers  the  terms 
and  standard  so  as  to  attract  the  greater  number  of 
customers,  and  those  who  should  be  the  guardians 
of  the  profession  of  medicine,  send  forth  such  rep 
resentatives  of  it,  as  lead  to  the  erroneous  popular 
opinions  of  the  nature  of  the  science  itself. 

No  one  may  here  oppose  the  popular  objection 
that  we  would  limit  the  facility  for  acquiring  a 
knowledge  of  the  profession  of  medicine  to  the  few 
whose  wealth  would  enable  to  attend  expensive 


268          PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE. 

schools  remote  from  their  homes.  Just  the  reverse; 
we  would  make  the  domain  of  medicine  a  true 
republic,  and  only  ask  of  its  members  if  they  have 
the  requisite  knowledge;  not,  where  they  got  it;  — 
whether  amid  the  halls,  laboratories,  and  libraries  of 
large  cities,  or,  through  the  inspiration  of  genius,  by 
the  light  of  a  pine  torch  in  a  forest  cabin.  Let 
every  village  have  its  medical  school,  if  it  may  be 
thought  expedient.  Indeed  it  is  a  question  whether, 
if  medical  education,  or  a  knowledge  of  the  princi 
ples  of  medicine,  were  a  part  of  general  education, 
there  would  not  be  greater  confidence  in  the  pro 
fession,  and  more  respect  awarded  to  those  who 
pursue  it?  An  illiterate  person  might  apply  to  a 
quacking  juggler,  or  to  any  one  less  illiterate  than 
himself,  for  information  upon  some  abstruse  point  of 
chemistry,  geology,  mineralogy,  or  astronomy,  but  all 
having  only  the  ordinary  school  knowledge  of  these 
sciences,  would  know  that  only  those  eminent  for 
their  learning  would  be  likely  to  give  the  required 
information.  The  same  thing  is  seen  when  regularly 
instructed  members  of  the  profession  .  apply  for 


PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE.  269 

information  to  those  of  the  profession  having*  greater 
skill  and  learning  than  themselves.  Many  gentlemen, 
particularly  in  the  southern  states,  study  medicine 
for  the  sake  of  mental  occupation,  with  no  intention 
of  pursuing  it  as  a  business,  and  many  who  have 
been  in  the  profession,  abandon  it  for  other  pursuits ; 
yet  these  gentlemen,  who  are  informed  upon  the 
nature  of  the  profession,  seek  the  best  attainable 
medical  advice  for  the  relief  of  the  ailments  of  them 
selves  or  their  families.  These  facts  lead  very  strongly 
to  the  inference  that  popular  medical  education 
would  be  fatal  to  the  existence  of  quackery,  and 
would  leave  the  practice  of  medicine  in  the  hands 
of  those  having  the  best  natural  and  acquired  gifts 
for  its  pursuit;  and  those  so  gifted  would  occupy  a 
high  and  honored  place  in  the  confidence  of  an 
intelligent  constituency. 

Whilst,  then,  we  make  no  objection  to  the  multi 
plication  of  schools  and  teachers  of  medicine,  we 
doubt  very  much  the  expediency  and  propriety  of 
these  schools  and  teachers  having  the  interested 
power  to  grant  diplomas  —  to  certify  to  the  merits 


270  PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE. 

of  their  own  numerous  offspring;  and  while  this 
system  endures,  the  public  is  justified  in  its  contempt 
for  diplomas.  It '  is  suggested  that  a  better  mode 
wdlild  be  to  compose  an  examining  board  in  each 
state,  in  which  all  the  schools  might  be  represented, 
and  thus  examine  each  other's  pupils,  or  all  candi 
dates  presenting  themselves;  the  faculty  of  the  state 
might  also  be  represented,  and  even  the  people, 
through  their  executive,  or  a  committee  of  their 
legislature. 

If  some  such  system  as  this  were  adopted,  the 
results  would  show  what  teachers  and  schools  were 
worthy  of  most  confidence;  the  despotism  of  insti 
tutions  which  have  grown  powerful  from  adventitious 
circumstances  would  be  broken  down,  and  the  people, 
having  a  part  in  the  process  of  conferring  medical 
degrees,  would  be  more  ready  to  oppose  quackery 
by  legislation. 

In  setting  forth  the  influences  which  tend  to  de 
grade  the  profession  of  medicine  from  its  true  and 
high  position,  it  would  be  a  serious  and  disrespectful 
omission  to  say  nothing  of  that  of  the  public  press, 


PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE.  271 

at  once  the  exponent,  and  controlling  power  of  public 
sentiment.  If  the  stately  essays  and  the  dignified 
leaders  of  respectable  papers  are  alone  taken  into 
consideration,  the  profession  of  medicine  has  nothing 
to  complain  of.  These  generally  pay  a  formal  trib 
ute  to  scientific  principles,  institutions,  and  men. 
Their  columns  contain  paragraphs  for  the  instruction 
of  the  people,  and  cautions  against  humbug,  deceit, 
and  imposture;  but  turn  to  the  page  for  advertise 
ments,  and,  for  the  lure  of  an  advertising  fee,  we 
find  columns  of  absurd  notices  of  quacking  pills  and 
potions,  such  palpable  impostures  as  to  have  no  in 
fluence  with  the  educated  and  discriminating,  but 
intended,  and  too  successfully  effecting  the  intention 
of  deceiving  the  ignorant  and  unthinking.  None  but 
those  whose  professional  avocations  bring  them  into 
association  with  the  humble  and  laboring  classes,  can 
imagine  the  amount  of  money  which  is  robbed  from 
these  classes  by  such  advertisements,  particularly  in 
the  country  districts;  and  the  amount  of  disease  and 
suffering  caused  by  these  ignorantly  compounded, 
and  ignorantly  administered  poisons,  is  deplorable. 


272  PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE. 

Many  of  these  notices  are  upon  subjects  which  should 
never  be  obtruded  upon  the  public  eye,  and  convey 
licentious  and  obscene  ideas  into  the  bosom  of  fami 
lies,  and  they  propagate  the  vices  for  whose  effects 
they  pretend  to  offer  a  remedy.  All  this  is  certainly 
a  great  moral  wrong,  and  it  argues  much  against 
the  moral  sense  of  the  community,  that  the  press, 
the  assumed  custodian  of  the  public  virtue,  shall  be 
guilty  of  this  wrong,  and  yet  claim  to  be  respectable. 
The  list  of  varied  and  contrary  diseases  which 
these  nostrums  pretend  to  cure,  is  alone  sufficient 
evidence  of  their  false  pretension,  and  should  be  such 
to  those  who  become  the  vehicle  of  imposing  the 
falsehood  upon  the  public.  Any  of  the  ordinary 
and  every  day  diseases  of  which  people  complain, 
may  have  their  origin  in  a  variety  of  morbid 
changes,  each  one  requiring  a  different  mode  of 
treatment,  and  of  course,  no  one  means  of  cure  being 
applicable  to  all.  We  will  take  "headache"  as  an 
illustration.  This  painful  and  distressing  affection 
may  have  its  cause  within  the  contents  of  the  skull, 
or  in  its  external  covering,  and  may  arise  from 


PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE.          273 

different  affections  of  these  parts.  It  may,  as  is 
most  frequently  the  case,  depend  upon  derangement 
of  remote  organs  —  the  stomach,  liver,  or  bowels.  It 
may  be  a  symptom  of  debility  or  of  a  too  full  and 
plethoric  habit.  The  following  list  of  causes  which 
excite  headache  into  action,  is  taken  from  the  Cyclo 
pedia  of  Practical  Medicine,  and  they  are  sufficiently 
varied  to  show  that  no  remedy  will  reach  all. 

"1.  Rheumatic  affection  of  the  pericranium.  2. 
Inflammation,  or  a  more  chronic  morbid  condition 
of  the  pericranium.  3.  Inflammation  of  the  mucous 
lining  of  the  frontal  sinus.  4.  Intense  mental  excite 
ment.  5.  Strong  impressions  on  the  external  senses. 
6.  Excessive  impetus  of  blood  to  the  head.  7.  Im 
peded  return  of  blood  from  the  head.  8.  Congestion 
within  the  head.  9.  Suppression  of  accustomed 
evacuations.  10.  Inflammation  of  the  brain  or  its 
membranes.  11.  Tumors,  or  other  morbid  changes 
of  structure  within  the  head.  12.  Morbid  affections 
of  the  stomach ;  —  as  from  over  excitation  or  disten- 
tion;  from  irritating  ingesta;  from  imperfect  diges 
tion;  the  presence  of  bile  in  the  stomach,  <fec. 
12* 


274          PROFESSION     OF    MEDICINE. 

13.  Costiveness.  14.  Narcotics.  15.  Worms.  16. 
Diminished  pressure  of  the  atmosphere.  17.  A 
heated,  humid,  or  deteriorated  atmosphere.  18.  Sud 
den  changes  of  temperature.  19.  Exposure  to  a 
current  of  air,  or  to  a  cold  wind,  especially  from  the 
east."  Headache  has  been  chosen  as  an  illustration, 
from  the  frequency  of  its  occurrence,  and  not  because 
it  has  a  more  varied  origin  than  any  other  of  the 
every  day  diseases  for  which  quack  remedies  are 
offered. 

It  is  not  probable  that  those  who  are  most  exposed 
to  the  wrong  of  quack  advertisements,  will  see  these 
remarks,  and  hence  it  is  the  more  incumbent  upon 
all  who  may  accord  in  the  views  now  presented,  to 
use  their  influence  to  prevent  the  spread  of  danger 
ous  errors  amongst  those  classes  of  the  community, 
in  which  they  may  do  the  work  of  mischief,  and  be 
without  the  reach  of  correction. 

Assailed  as  the  profession  of  medicine  is  by  popu 
lar  misconception;  misrepresented  by  unworthy 
members,  and  unsustained  by  legislative  protection, 
it  is  thrown  upon  itself  for  protection,  purification, 


PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE.  275 

and  elevation,  and  these  ends  it  is  now  endeavoring 
to  accomplish  by  voluntary  association.  The  "  Ameri 
can  Medical  Association,"  or  national  congress  of  the 
profession,  organized  by  members  from  the  various 
medical  literary  institutions,  from  state  and  county 
societies,  is  using  its  influence  to  elevate  the  stand 
ard  of  medical  education,  and  is  concentrating  the 
wisdom  of  the  profession  in  this  country  upon  the 
investigation  of  subjects  of  importance  to  the  health 
and  happiness  of  the  community.  It  has  promulga 
ted,  for  the  guidance  and  government  of  its  mem 
bers,  a  code  of  morals  defining  the  duties  of  medical 
men  to  the  community,  and  to  each  other,  upon 
principles  of  courtesy,  honor,  and  Christianity,  and 
preventing  the  evil  results  of  local  rivalries  and  jeal 
ousies.  The  county  societies  serve  as  tribunals  or 
courts  to  secure  the  observance  of  the  moral  laws  of 
the  profession.  They  also  indicate  to  the  people  what 
medical  men  are  in  good  repute  with  their  brethren, 
and  under  obligations  for  the  conscientious  perfor 
mance  of  their  duties.  These  local  societies  also 
collect  from  their  vicinity,  and  from  the  members 


276          PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE. 

wlio  form  them,  those  facts  of  interest  to  the  public 
weal,  which  would  otherwise  be  lost,  but  being  con 
tributed  to  the  general  store,  form  a  vast  amount 
of  valuable  information  j  for,  it  is  a  mistake,  and  one 
fruitful  of  evil  to  the  community,  to  regard  the 
medical  profession  as  limited  in  its  duties  to  the 
relief  of  the  sick  who  may  come  under  the  charge 
of  individual  members  of  the  profession.  It  has  a 
far  more  extended  mission  than  this.  To  remove 
the  general  sources  of  disease  —  to  prevent  sickness 
and  suffering  —  to  ascertain  the  physical  and  moral 
sources  of  human  depravity  —  and  to  indicate  the 
means  of  their  removal,  are  among  the  high  objects 
of  professional  organization ;  and  most  nobly  has  the 
profession  come  up  to  its  work.  Notwithstanding 
the  vulgar,  illiberal,  and  ignorant  sneers  of  those 
who  charge  upon  medical  men  a  wish  for  the  in 
crease  of  disease,  their  profession  has  been  found  the 
most  active  in  the  promotion  of  measures  of  general 
health  and  sanitary  reform;  although  in  its  labors 
it  has  had  to  contend  with  popular  prejudice, 


PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE.  277 


legislative  indifference,  and  opposing  pecuniary  in 
terests. 

The  subjects  bearing  upon  general  and  individual 
health,  to  which  professional  attention  has  been  of 
late  actively  directed  both  in  Europe  and  America, 
are,  the  water  supply  and  sewerage  of  towns  and 
villages;  the  drainage  of  the  soil;  the  construction, 
arrangement,  and  ventilation  of  dwellings;  the  inves 
tigation  of  cholera  and  other  epidemics;  the  estab 
lishment  of  public  baths  and  wash  houses;  the 
registration  of  marriages,  births,  and  deaths;  and  the 
temperance  reform.  The  efforts  of  the  profession  to 
arrest  the  evils  of  quackery  are  correspondent  to  its 
whole  sanitary  action,  although,  unfortunately,  they 
are  attributed  to  interested  motives ;  whereas,  in  truth, 
the  evidence  goes  to  show,  that  the  more  quackery 
prevails,  the  more  is  the  employment  for  scientific 
medicine,  and  the  "  Family  Medicine,"  whether  a 
book  or  a  pill,  is  a  fertile  source  of  fees  to  the  family 
physician. 

The  organization  of  the  profession  in  county,  state, 
and  national  associations,  has  been  efficient,  among 


278          PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE. 

other  matters,  in  calling  the  attention  of  legislators 
to  the  necessity  of  the  law  for  the  registration  of 
births,  marriages,  and  deaths.  The  following  remarks 
upon  this  subject  are  taken  from  the  "  Report  of  the 
Committee  of  the  House  of  Representatives  of 
Pennsylvania." 

"The  Registry  Law  would  teach  the  laws  of 
human  life  developed  by  the  natural  constitution  of 
our  bodies  as  they  usually  exist  under  the  influences 
that  surround  them,  and  how  far  they  may  be  favor 
ably  modified  and  improved.  This  can  only  be  done 
by  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  facts  that  are  daily 
occurring  among  us.  These  matters  are  important 
to  the  physician  to  aid  him  in  curing  the  sick,  but 
far  more  important  to  the  people  to  aid  them  in 
learning  how  to  live  without  being  sick."  It  is  esti 
mated  that  the  annual  loss  in  England  and  Wales 
alone  by  preventable  disease  is  greater  than  the  loss 
of  the  allied  armies  at  the  battle  of  Waterloo.  In 
the  county  of  Lancaster,  eleven  thousand  adults  die 
annually  of  removable  epidemics,  and  it  is  further 
estimated  that  the  annual  pecuniary  loss  of  the 


PROFESSION     OE     MEDICINE.          2*79 

United  Kingdom  by  preventable  diseases,  is  one 
hundred  millions  of  dollars.  A  committee  of  Parlia 
ment  report  upon  a  registration  law,  that,  "  It  involved 
matter  of  great  public  and  national  interest  as  well 
as  individual  satisfaction ;  and  rights  and  claims  to 
property;  that  great  trouble,  vast  expense,  utter  un 
certainty,  capricious  changes,  and  local  and  general 
evils  exist,  while  no  means  are  supplied  to  obtain 
the  information  other  countries  possess  and  greatly 
value,  as  to  the  state  of  disease,  the  operation  of 
moral  and  physical  causes  on  the  health  of  the 
people,  the  progress  of  the  population  and  other 
matters,  on  which  accurate  knowledge  can  scarcely 
be  too  highly  appreciated  or  too  intensely  pursued." 
A  consequent  bill,  introduced  by  Lord  John  Russell, 
became  a  law  in  1837.  "The  medical  profession, 
with  all  that  science  and  philanthropy  that  every 
where  distinguishes  them,  have  wrought  upon  these 
rich  and  abundant  results  of  a  varied  registration, 
and  elicited  great  truths.  By  sharp  scrutiny,  close 
and  laborious  comparison,  they  have  established  the 
comparative  health  of  localities,  and  with  an  industry 


280  PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE. 

not  less  active,  having  discovered  the  cause  of  disease, 
have  pointed  out  the  means  of  its  removal."  The 
following  eloquent  remarks  are  from  an  article  upon 
u  Sanitary  Reform "  in  the  British  and  Foreign 
Medico-Chirurgical  Review. 

"The  quarterly  reports  of  the  Registrar  General 
are  among  the  most  interesting  and  instructive 
documents  of  the  day.  They  are  to  us  what,  in  an 
inferior  degree,  the  Saxon  Chronicles  were  to  the 
eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries.  They  engrave,  in 
brief  but  expressive  phrase,  the  national  vicissitudes, 
prosperities,  trials  and  calamities.  With  these  faith 
ful  and  unerring  indices,  marriages  and  deaths,  the 
Registrar  General  measures  the  robustness  of  natural 
vigor,  or  probes  the  depth  of  national  suffering. 
Backed  by  those  ranks  of  expressive  figures,  which 
permit  no  exaggeration,  and  are  susceptible  of  no 
fallacy,  he  presents  to  us  a  true  picture  of  our 
country  and  nation.  No  false  rhetoric,  or  untrue 
coloring  is  suffered  to  mar  the  truth  of  the  hard  and 
simple  outlines.  No  political  creed  conceals  the  facts, 
or  perverts  their  meaning.  No  unjust  law  orders 


PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE.  281 

the  distortion  of  half  the  truth,  Ly  the  concealment 
of  the  other  half.  These  reports  are,  indeed,  some 
thing  more  than  history;  they  are  the  judgment  of 
the  time  upon  itself,  and,  untinctured  as  they  are 
by  party  spirit,  and  unswayed  by  personal  considera 
tions,  those  judgments  are  as  true  and  faithful  as 
those  of  future  times  can  be.  It  is  no  objection  to 
the  value  of  these  records,  to  say  they,  chronicle,  with 
greater  minuteness  and  accuracy,  the  national  ills  and 
chastisements,  than  the  national  happiness  and  suc 
cess.  The  most  dreary  and  painful  side  of  human 
existence,  is  certainly  most  largely  presented  to  us. 
The  shadow  of  imperfection  and  decay  tinges 
all  things  with  its  melancholy  hues.  Our  path  is 
rather  through  the  gloomy  valley,  and  under  the 
shade  of  cypress,  than  on  the  invigorating  mountain 
side,  resplendent  with  the  light  of  Heaven.  But  this 
seems  to  be  the  necessary  result  of  all  true  histories 
of  the  social  condition  of  the  people.  That  which 
is  strongest  and  most  permanent  presses  aside  that 
which  is  less  vigorous  and  enduring.  Happiness  and 
comfort  escape  the  chronicles;  gaunt  features  of 


282          PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE. 

misery  and  distress  are  ever  before  him.  The  happy 
hours  of  a  nation's,  as  of  an  individual's  life,  are  as 
the  downy  ripples  which  the  advancing  tide  washes 
into  smoothness ;  the  hours  of  sorrow  and  of  trouble 
are  like  those  ripples  fossilized  into  stone." 

The  enlarged  sphere  of  duty  pertaining  to  the 
profession  of  medicine,  can  only  be  properly  met  by 
professional  organization.  The  people  have  their 
most  solemn  interests  concerned  in  sustaining  the 
organization,  and  have  much  reason  to  suspect  those 
who  affect  to  be  independent  of  it.  Medical  men 
who  voluntarily  refrain  from  the  work,  are  either 
behind  the  age,  ignorant  of  their  duties  and  of  what 
the  profession  is  doing,  or  else  are  seeking  to  hide 
sinister  designs  and  selfish  purposes  under  an  affecta 
tion  of  individual  independence,  just  as  all  do,  who 
profess  to  be  independent  of  the  general  laws  of 
society.  It  is  an  easy  mode  of  getting  rid  of  whole 
some  obligation  and  restraint,  by  assuming  to  be 
entirely  independent  of  it,  and  the  people  who  cheer 
on  such  lawless  spirits,  must  not  complain  if  they 
find  themselves  the  victims  of  lawlessness.  An 


PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE.          283 

irregular  practitioner  in  one  of  the  western  counties 
of  Pennsylvania,  seeking  to  trap  this  popular  sym 
pathy,  advertises  himself,  in  the  most  triumphant 
manner,  as  independent  of  the  county  medical  so 
ciety: —  a  society  to  which  he  is,  of  course,  entirely 
ineligible.  Men  may  affect  this  independence  who 
have  an  interest  in  shunning  the  light  of  professional 
investigation,  and  may  claim  the  privilege  of  dark 
ness  as  an  independent  right;  hut  it  cannot  be 
awarded  them ;  the  interests  of  society  forbid  it.  If 
the  professional  man  is  weak,  he  owes  it  to  those 
committed  to  his  professional  charge  to  have  the  aid 
and  counsel  of  his  professional  brethren,  and  if  he 
is  strong,  he  owes  a  portion  of  his  strength  to  the 
profession  and  the  good  of  society.  The  egotism  of 
individual  vanity,  judgment,  and  interest,  must  be 
under  subjection  to  the  "  Higher  Law "  of  Christian, 
professional,  and  general  organization,  or  Christian, 
professional,  and  general  communities,  have  no  se 
curity  for  the  conduct  of  their  members. 

Those   who   take   a   correct   view  of    the   various 
difficulties  we  have  suggested  as  connected  with  the 


284          PROFESSION     OF    MEDICINE. 

practice  of  medicine  will  see  that  it  is  not  a  pro 
fession  whose  paths  are  through  smooth  and  flowery 
walks.  But  it  may  be  as  well  to  offer  a  few  con 
siderations  for  the  use  of  those  who  are  desirous  of 
entering  that  profession,  and,  in  doing  so,  our  desire 
is  not  to  diminish  the  number  of  "doctors,"  but  to 
increase  the  number  of  those  who  are  qualified  to 
perform  the  obligations  they  take  upon  themselves. 
It  is  a  maxim  with  political  economists,  that  cheap 
ening  an  article  increases  its  consumption,  and,  in 
the  aggregate,  invites  a  larger  expenditure  of  money 
upon  that  article.  The  maxim  is  perfectly  true  in 
regard  to  cheap  doctoring ;  it  costs  the  people  a  vast 
amount  of  money,  and  all  that  is  received  in  return 
is  a  worthless  and  injurious  article.  It  may  well  be 
questioned  whether  the  same  degree  of  benefit  accrues 
to  the  people  by  cheapening  their  facilities  for  medi 
cation,  as  arises  from  the  lessened  prices  of  silk  and 
cotton  fabrics.  A  case,  unhappily  of  every  day  oc 
currence,  will  illustrate  this  position.  An  individual 
is  affected  with  some  chronic,  permanent,  and  incurable 
ailment,  and  yet  it  may  not  be  one  seriously  affecting 


PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE.  285 

his  life  and  usefulness .  Upon  consulting  some  med 
ical  man  well  and  thoroughly  skilled  in  the  laws 
and  nature  of  disease,  after,  perhaps,  not  more  than 
fifteen  minutes  conference,  the  patient  is  told  that 
the  use  of  medicines  can  be  of  no  service  to  him, 
and  will  only  be  a  fruitless  expenditure  of  his  money, 
his  time,  and  his  constitution.  If  charged  for  this 
advice  five,  ten,  or  twenty  dollars,  he  may  regard 
it  as  an  outrageous  robbery,  and  yet  for  want  of  this 
learned  and  honest  counsel,  he  may  go  from  doctor 
to  doctor,  and  from  quackery  to  quackery,  paying 
but  fifty  cents  here  and  a  dollar  there,  not  for  ad 
vice,  but  for  medicine,  until  he  has  expended  hun 
dreds  of  dollars,  weeks,  months,  and  years  -of  time, 
and  all  the  vigor  of  constitution  which  was  necessary 
to  sustain  him  under  the  burden  of  his  disease. 
Hence,  fewer  and  more  competent  medical  advisers 
would  be  more  to  the  profit  and  happiness  of  the 
people,  and  service  will  be  done  them,  if  a  due 
reflection  upon  the  difficulties  of  the  profession  shall 
deter  any  of  the  crowds  now  rushing  to  the  medical 
schools  from  their  purpose. 


286         PROFESSION    OP    MEDICINE. 

The  entire  difficulties  of  the  study  of  medicine  are 
rarely  understood  by  those  who  commence  it:  but 
it  may  be  appreciated  when  it  is  considered  that  the 
mental  faculties  and  the  physical  powers  are  to  be 
given  to  the  acquisition  of  five  or  six  different  sci 
ences,  and  to  the  languages  of  those  sciences.  The 
powers  of  memory,  of  observation,  of  judgment,  are 
to  be  assiduously  cultivated,  and  with  no  end  to  the 
labor.  Those  who  have  studied  a  language  know 
the  time  and  labor  it  costs,  and  those  who  have 
not  the  mental  discipline  as  well  as  the  facilities 
arising  from  the  acquisition  of  a  language,  are  unfit 
for  the  studies  of  medicine;  and  yet  the  acquisition 
of  language  is  easy  and  agreeable,  relatively  to  that 
of  medical  science.  The  medical  student  may  and 
should  have  his  healthful  exercise;  but  he  has  no 
right  to  amusements  or  relaxations  which  distract  his 
thoughts  or  lessen  their  vigor.  He  must  have  that 
devotion  to  philosophy  and  love  of  truth  which  will 
make  the  most  repulsive  investigations  agreeable,  and 
keep  him  days  and  nights,  for  much  of  his  life,  in 
damp  dissecting  rooms,  in  hospitals,  and  pestilent 


PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE.  287 

dead  houses.  The  severe  discipline  of  mathematics 
must  have  trained  his  reasoning  powers,  and  his  eye 
and  hand  have  been  taught  by  skill  in  drawing.  If 
his  physical  constitution  be  not  good,  he  will  sink 
beneath  the  burden  of  study  and  exposure,  and  add 
to  the  number  of  those,  who  are  conducted  to  the 
grave  by  consumption  and  fever,  before  their  studies 
are  completed. 

The  granting  of  the  college  certificate,  or  diploma, 
is  very  far  from  ending  the  student's  labors ;  it  only 
opens  to  him  another  course  of  education  and  more 
pressing  obligations  to  pursue  it.  If  the  diploma 
has  been  his  object,  he  is  unfit  for  a  profession 
which  imposes  upon  its  members  the  most  sacred 
obligations  to  preserve  life,  and  to  relieve  pain,  suf 
fering  and  sorrow.  If  his  object  is  merely  to  make 
money  —  to  acquire  fortune  and  honor,  or  to  live 
at  ease,  he  is  as  unfit  for  the  profession  as  the  pro 
fession  is  for  him.  Statistics  go  to  show  that  among 
occupations  that  of  medicine  is  the  shortest  lived, 
and  the  least  successful  in  the  accumulation  of  wealth. 
He  must  look  for  h-is  reward  to  his  own  breast,  in 


288  PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE. 


the  consciousness  of  being  able  to  do  his  duty,  and 
in  having  done  it;  even  though  misjudged  and  cen 
sured  by  those  whom  he  has  benefited,  arid  who 
are  incompetent  to  form  any  idea  of  his  capabili 
ties,  or  of  the  long  and  anxious  labors  by  which 
they  have  been  reached.  He  belongs  to  a  profession 
which  gives  him  frequent  opportunities  of  practicing 
upon  the  command:  "Do  good  to  those  who  de- 
spitefully  use  you."  He  must  give  up  all  command 
of  his  time  night  or  day,  and  be  prepared  any  and 
every  moment  for  the  most  harassing  emergencies. 
Even  when  his  active  duties  may  not  call  him  from 
his  home  or  bed,  he  must  expect  to  pass  anxious 
hours  and  sleepless  nights  from  the  responsibility  of 
intricate  cases,  and  the  consciousness  that  the  lives 
and  happiness  of  others  are  dependent  upon  his 
skill  and  judgment,  and  yet,  after  all  this,  he  may 
find  every  one,  from  the  shoemaker's  bench  to  the 
pulpit,  advancing  the  most  positive .  and  dogmatic 
opinions  upon  medical  subjects  in  opposition  to  his 
own,  and  recklessly  prescribing  for  patients  which  are 
to  him  such  a  source  of  mental  anxiety; 


PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE.  289 

"As  fools  rush   in 
Where  angels  fear  to  tread." 

After  large  contributions  of  gratuitous  labor  to  the 
poor,  lie  must  be  content  to  see  his  services  valued, 
by  those  able  to  pay  him,  by  the  standard  of  day 
labor,  and  may  consider  himself  fortunate  if  he  is 
not,  when  he  has  done  his  best,  dragged  before  an 
ignorant  and  hostile  jury,  vilified  and  traduced  by 
hireling  lawyers,  and  robbed  of  his  means  and  repu 
tation  by  the  testimony  of  unprincipled  and  rival 
quacks. 

Such  are  the  contingencies  of  the  life  of  the  skillful 
and  conscientious  physician ;  still  more  unhappy  is  the 
position  of  him  who  has  undertaken  obligations  which 
he  is  naturally  incompetent  to  meet,  or  for  which 
he  has  not  fitted  himself.  When  such  a  one  as 
this  enters  the  darkened  chamber  of  disease,  and  feels 
the  anxious  and  hopeful  gaze  of  relatives  penetrating 
his  soul,  and  yet  is  at  a  loss  for  resources  to  meet 
the  demands  made  upon  him ;  is  bewildered,  not  by 
the  intricacy  of  the  case,  but  by  his  conscious  ina 
bility  to  meet  it,  and  fears  that  the  trust  reposed 
13 


290  PROFESSION     OF     MEDICINE. 


in  him  is  a  false  trust,  which  must  close  in  disap 
pointment,  sorrow,  and  death,  when  proper  medical 
qualification  would  be  able  to  give  cheerful  encour 
agement,  and  to  change  the  gloomy  scene  to  one 
of  happiness  and  joy:  then,  if  he  has  any  feeling 
of  man,  he  reproaches  his  misplaced  position,  and 
remembers  with  bitter  agony  the  hours  wasted  in 
selfish  enjoyment,  which  should  have  been  given  to 
the  solemn  duties  of  his  calling. 

Better  for  the  peace  and  happiness  of  such  a  man 
had  he  sought  any  trade  or  occupation,  however 
humble  and  laborious,  so  that  it  was  but  honest  and 
suitable  to  his  character  and  abilities. 

We  have  endeavored  in  this  paper  to  draw  the 
distinction  between  the  true  nature  of  the  profession 
of  medicine,  and  the  popular  view  taken  of  it;  to 
point  out  the  causes  of  error,  and  to  suggest  certain 
remedies,  which,  if  efficient  for  the  purpose,  will 
benefit  the  public  by  restoring  the  profession  to  its 
proper  place,  and  making  its  representatives  equal 
to  the  obligations  they  have  taken  upon  themselves. 
Whilst  health,  life,  and  morals  are  matters  of  general 


PROFESSION     OF    MEDICINE.          291 

import,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  educated  classes,  the 
pulpit,  and  the  press,  to  aid  the  efforts  now  making 
by  the  medical  profession  to  confer  upon  the  people 
the  benefits  of  true  science,  and  to  protect  them  from 
ignorance  and  imposture.  The  magnitude  of  the 
existing  evil  needs  only  to  be  known,  to  call  for  the 
energetic  action  of  every  conscientious  member  of 
society. 


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The  White  Slaves  of  England.  By  JOHN  0.  COBDEN. 
Finely  illustrated  ;  1  large  12mo  vol.  500  pp.  Price,  $1.50. 

Headley's  Women  of  the  Bible:  Historical  and  descrip 
tive  sketches  of  the  Women  of  the  Bible,  as  maidens,  wives 
and  mothers ;  from  Eve  of  the  Old,  to  the  Marys  of  the 
New  Testament.  By  Rev.  P.  C.  HEADLEY.  In  one  12mo 
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The  Silver  Cup  of  Sparkling  Drops,  From  Many  Foun 
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B.  PORTER.  312  12mo  pp. — Illustrated. 

Sir  John  Franklin  and  the  Arctic  Regions.  Beauti 
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12mo  pp.  and  25  plates. 

"  How  sleep  the  brave,  who  sink  to  rest 
With  all  their  country's  honor  blest." 

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ratives  of  Captives  who  have  been  earned  away  by  the  In 
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earliest  period  to  the  present  time.  By  SAMUEL  G.  DRAKE. 
12mo,  muslin. 

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illustrations ;  cloth,  gilt. 

History  of  the  War  with  Mexico,  from  the  commence 
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tions  ;  gilt  back,  muslin. 

The  Generals  of  the  Last  War  with  Great  Britain: 

with  portraits  of  Generals  Brown,  Macomb,  Scott,  Jackson ., 
Harrison  and  Gaines.    By  J.  S.  JENKINS.    Muslin,  12rno, 


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PERN  LEAVES  From  Fanny's  Portfolio.  With 
eight  illustrations  by  Fred  M.  Coffin.  One  volume,  500  pp. 
12mo.  Price,  $1.25. 

THE   VOICE   OF    THE    PRESS. 
Brief  Extracts  from  Lengthy  Notices. 

Fanny .Fern  is  immortal.  Where  will  you  find  excellences — stirring, 
salient  points — so  thickly  studded  as  in  her  writings.  For  ourselves,  (we 
say  it  frankly,)  we  know  not  the  author,  of  the  present  day,  certainly,  who 
has  written  upon  so  many  different  subjects  and  made  so  many  capital  hits 
as  the  author  of  "  Fern  Leaves."  There  is  surely  no  writer  we  read  that 
can  make  such  a  perfect,  glowing  picture,  with  one  stroke  of  the  pen,  as 
Fanny  Fern. — Burlington  (  Vt.)  Courier. 

It  is  a  beautiful  book,  abounding  with  just  sentiments,  admirably  uttered, 
on  almost  every  topic  of  practical  life.  Let  it  be  read  by  all — the  circula 
tion  cannot  be  too  large.  It  will  do  great  good  wherever  it  goes. — Chris* 
turn  Ambassador. 

They  are  sweet,  womanly,  and  surcharged  with  a  tender  pathos.  A 
dash  of  sub -acid  now  and  then  thrown  in  gives  a  wholesome  variety  and 
piques  the  appetite  of  the  reader. — N.  Y.  Tribune. 

They  go  right  to  the  feelings,  and  it  is  just  as  impossible  to  resist  their 
plea  as  it  is  to  avoid  reading  them. — Nevrport  Mercury. 

The  dedication  of  her  volume  wins  the  reader's  heart  in  advance ;  and 
as  he  proceeds,  he  finds  himself  in  a  very  April  of  smiles  and  tears. — New 
York  Mirror. 

Pointed  and  full  of  thought,  displaying  a  knowledge  of  human  nature 
and  a  power  of  touching  the  feelings  which  only  genius  can  possess  and 
exert. — N.  Y.  Commercial  Advertiser. 

It  is  emphatically  a  home  book,  and  every  word  on  its  neatly  printed 
pages  will  find  its  way  to  the  heart,  though  your  bosom  is  shielded  with 
the  iron-mail  of  hate ;  and  even  your  money-loving  eyes  will  melt  into 
tears,  as  you  read  the  pure  thoughts  which  will  greet  you  there. — Clarion, 
Penn.  " 

"We  can  say  "  with  a  clear  conscience,"  that  it  is  truly  one  of  the  most 
superb  and  finely  gotten  up  books  in  the  whole  boundless  universe. 
Toung  ladies,  if  you  want  a  splendid  book,  just  send  th»  required  amount 
to  the  publishers,  and  you  will  receive  it  free  of  postage. — Sciota  Sun. 

If  so  be  there  is  any  one  of  our  readers  who  has  net  read  it,  we  would 
simply  say  that  you  are  losing  time  until  you  do  so.  Do  you  wish  to 
laugh  ?  Read  Fanny's  book.  Do  you  wish  to  cry  ?  Bead  Fern  Leaves 
from  Fanny's  Portfolio. — Literary  Echo. 

Published  by 

DERBY,  ORTON  &  MULLIGAN,  Buftalo. 

DERBY  fc  MILLER,  Auburn. 


"TRUTH  STRANGER  THAN  FICTION." 


TWELVE  YEARS  A  SLAVE .  The  Narrative  of  Sol 
omon  Northrup,  a  citizen  of  New  York,  kidnapped  iii 
Washington  city  in  1841,  and  rescued  in  1853,  from  a  cot 
tage  plantation  near  the  Red  River,  in  Louisiana.  One 
12mo  volume,  336  pp.  Price,  $1.00. 

Notices  of  the  Press. 

Next  to  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,  the  extraordinary  Narrative  of  Solomon 
Northup  is  the  most  remarkable  book  that  was  ever  issued  from  the 
American  Press.  Indeed,  it  is  even  a  more  extraordinary  work  than  that, 
because  it  is  only  a  simple,  unvarnished  tale  of  the  experience  of  an 
American  freeman  of  the  "  blessings  "  of  slavery,  while  Mrs.  Stowe's  Un 
cle  Tom  is  only  an  ingenious  and  powerfully  wrought  Novel,  intended  to 
illustrate  what  Solomon  saw  and  experienced — southern  slavery  in  its  va 
rious  phases. — Detroit  Tribune. 

The  narrative  will  be  read  with  interest  by  every  one  who  can  sympa 
thize  with  a  human  being  struggling  for  freedom. — Buffalo  Courier. 

The  volume  cannot  fail  to  gain  a  wide  circulation.  It  will  be  read  ex 
tensively  both  at  the  North  and  the  South.  No  one  can  contemplate  the 
scenes  which  are  here  so  naturally  set  forth,  without  a  new  conviction  of 
the  hideousness  of  the  institution  from  which  the  subject  of  the  narrative 
happily  escaped. — New  York  Tribune. 

What  a  tale  it  tells ;  what  inexpressible  reproofs  against  slavery ;  what 
occasion  for  shame  and  tears  on  the  part  of  all.  We  think  the  story  as 
affecting  as  any  tale  of  sorrow  could  be.  We  believe  its  perusal  will  net 
only  excite  an  absorbing  interest,  but  minister  powerfully  to  the  sound, 
intelligent  antislavery  sentiment  of  the  country. — New  York  Evangelist. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  exciting  Narratives,  full  of  thrilling  incidents 
artlessly  told,  with  all  the  marks  of  truth.  Such  a  tale  is  more  powerful 
than  any  fiction  which  can  be  conceived  and  elaborated.  There  are  no 
depicted  scenes  in  "  Uncle  Tom  "  more  tragic,  horrible  and  pathetic,  than 
the  incidents  compassed  in  the  twelve  years  of  this  man's  life  in  slavery. — 
Cincinnati  Journal. 

Published  bj 

DERBY  &  MILLER,  Auburn,  N.  Y. 

DERBY,  ORTON  &  MULLIGAN,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 


THE  PILGRIM'S  PROGRESS  from  this  World  to 
that  which  is  to  come.  Delivered  under  the  similitude  of  a 
Dream.  By  JOHN  BUN Y AN.  Price,  $1.25. 

The  enterprising  publishers  of  this  volume  are  fairly  entitled  to  tho 
credit  of  having  brought  out  the  best  editi<  n  of  Bunyan's  immortal  work. 
The  type  is  very  large  and  clear,  and  there  is  neither  note  nor  comment  of 
any  kind,  nor  even  a  preface,  except  the  inimitable  poetical  one  by  the  au 
thor.  There  are  a  few  chaste  pictorial  illustrations,  which  will  be  wel 
come  to  all.  We  can  cheerfully  recommend  this  edition  to  those  who 
want  a  more  than  ordinarily  excellent  copy  of  the  Pilgrim's  Progress. — 
Northern  Christian  Advocate. 

BUNYAN'S  PILGRIM'S  PROGRESS. — This  deservedly  popular  work,  which 
has  gone  through  so  many  editions,  needs  no  recommendation  of  ours. 
Some  have  placed  it  first  among  all  human  productions.  The  dreamer 
has  written  a  book  peculiarly  attracting  to  all  classes  of  society.  The  old, 
the  young,  and  middle  aged,  the  impenitent  as  well  as  the  pious,  have  been 
interested  and  profited  by  its  perusal  *  *  x  The  edition  before  us  is 
in  clear,  open  and  large  type,  substantial  and  elegant  binding,  adapted  to 
the  dim  sight  of  the  aged,  and  will  well  form  an  appropriate  companion 
for  the  Family  Bible.— Religious  Herald. 

THE  PILGRIM'S  PROGRESS'. —  Bunyan  needs  no  encomium  to  exalt  his 
character  in  the  minds  of  the  good.  This  book  from  the  Auburn  press  is 
creditable  to  the  popular  firm.  It  is  large,  roomy,  and  attractive — of  just 
such  a  form  and  style  as  pleases  one  when  he  sits  down  to  read  the  Pil 
grim's  Progress. — Buffalo  Advocate. 

BUNYAN'S  PILGRIM'S  PROGRESS. — A  very  fine  edition  of  the  immortal 
Pilgrim,  in  clear,  open  type,  and  elegant  binding,  which,  we  hope,  will 
tempt  the  eye  of  thousands  of  new  readers.  Every  attempt  to  multiply 
the  readers  of  this  great  poem  should  have  a  hearty  approbation.  Next 
to  the  Bible,  it  has,  probably,  the  widest  circulation  of  any  book,  and 
probably  deserves  it. — New  York  Evangelist. 

Derby  and  Miller's  edition  of  Pilgrim's  Progress.  Good  old  John  Bun 
yan,  the  tinker !  Never  shall  we  tire  of  his  volume— always  shall  we  wel 
come  it  to  our  heart  as  well  as  to  our  library.  The  present  edition  is 
beautifully  printed  on  large  type  and  fine  paper,  and  is  sold  at  .$1  2f>.  This 
is  emphatically  a  good  book,  as  every  body  knows  who  has  read  it ;  and 
who  has  not  ? — Methodist  Protestant. 

We  doubt  whether  the  idea  of  rendering  himself  famous  ever  entered 
into  the  imagination  of  the  honest  but  enthusiastic  tinker  of  Eleston,  when, 
in  the  solitude  of  Bedford  jail,  he  occupied  himself  in  writing  this  reli 
gious  allegory.  Yet  such  was  the  result  of  his  labors.  The  story  of 
Christian  and  his  family  has  been  read  and  re-read  by  cotmtless  thousands ; 
it  has  been  translated  into  most  European  languages;  and  has  undoubt 
edly  enjoyed  a  far  greater  share  of  popularity  than  any  other  work  of  a 
similar  character.  Since  its  original  publication,  the  world  has  heen  lit 
erally  flooded  with  books,  but  it  has  steadily  maintained  its  place  among 
them  ;  and  the  fame  of  the  author  seems  but  to  grow  brighter  with  ad 
vancing  years. 

The  edition  issued  by  oiir  fellow  townsmen  is  one  of  the  best  we  have 
ever  seen.  It  is  a  12mo  volume  of  nearly  five  hundred  pages,  and  is  beau 
tifully  and  appropriately  illustrated.  The  paper  is  good,  the  typography 
clear  and  neat,  and  the  binding  firm  and  durable.— New  Era. 

Published  by 

DERBY,  ORTON  &  MULLIGAN,  Buffalo. 

DERBY  &  MILLER,  Auburn. 


MEMOIR  OP  ADONIRAM  JUDSON  :  being  a 
Sketch  of  his  Life  and  Missionary  Labors.  By  J.  CLEM 
ENT,  author  of  "  Noble  Deeds  of  American  Women."  $1.00. 

This  is  a  valuable  memoir  of  one  of  the  noblest  men  that  ever  lived. 
Few  lives  present  greater  moral  heroism  than  the  life  of  Dr.  Judson.  He 
was  the  founder  of  East  India  missions,  so  far  as  the  Baptist  church  of  this 
country  is  concerned.  Mr.  Clement  has  executed  his  task  with  decided 
ability.  The  narrative  is  at  all  times  clear  and  well  sustained,  and  occa 
sionally  is  very  affecting.  The  first  half  of  the  twentieth  chapter  cannot 
be  read  without  deep  emotion.  The  work  is  beautifully  printed,  and  mer 
its  an  extensive  sale. —  Christian  Advocate,  (Methodist.) 

The  biography  of  a  noble  missionary  hero,  who  lived  long,  and  worked 
faithfully  to  the  last,  in  behalf  of  the  heathen.  The  record  of  his  toils  and 
sufferings,  his  faith  and  hope,  his  trials  and  his  successes,  can  not  fail  to 
awaken  or  deepen  a  genuine  missionary  spirit  in  Christian  hearts.  To 
such  as  have  only  heard,  in  general,  of  Dr.  Judson,  this  volume  will  give 
the  interesting  particulars  of  his  life ;  and  in  the  minds  of  those  who 
knew  him,  it  will  awaken  many  favorSble  recollections. — Zio?i's  (Baptist) 
Herald. 

It  cannot  fail  to  interest  all  who  admire  lofty  moral  heroism,  and  we 
presume  will  awaken  in  the  bosom  of  every  reader  a  desire  to  know  more 
of  this  good  man. — Christian  (Baptist)  Secretary. 

Much  labor  and  research  have  been  bestowed  in  the  collection  and  ar 
rangement  of  the  materials ;  and  the  record  of  his  trials  and  sufferings, 
his  toils  and  labors,  throughout  a  long  and  arduous  life,  from  his  pen,  and 
other  sources  of  information,  could  not  fail  to  make  an  interesting  and 
profitable  work. — Religious  (Baptist)  Her  aid. 

The  biography  before  us,  written  by  a  gentleman  of  this  city,  well 
known  for  his  correct  poetic  taste,  and  for  his  numerous  contributions  to 
the  rhythmical  literature  of  our  country,  consists,  iu  part,  of  the  diary  of 
Mr.  Judson,  and  is,  in  part,  derived  from  his  various  published  writings. 
As  a  record  of  suffering,  devotion,  and  strong  purpose,  we  have  rarely 
read  anything  of  more  stirring  interest. — Buffalo  Courier  (Secular.) 

Mr.  Clement's  work  clearly  and  unobtrusively  sketches  the  [liistory  of 
Dr.  Judson's  missionary  career,  and  supplies,  to  the  ordinary  reader,  a 
connected  view  of  his  labors,  which  could  not  elsewhere  be  found.  It  is 
WTitten  with  simplicity,  and  a  proper  admiration  of  Dr.  Judson's  charac 
ter  ;  and  presents  a  great  variety  of  interesting  documents  and  letters  that 
ought  not  to  be  forgotten.  It  is  a  very  animated  and  impressive  work, 
and  will  tend  not  only  to  prepare  the  reader  for  an  appreciation  of  a  more 
complete  biography,  but  give  a  new  and  admiring  confidence  in  the  cause 
of  missions,  and  the  power  of  divine  grace. — New  York  Evangelist  (Pres 
byterian.) 

Our  esteemed  correspondent  we  are  glad  to  welcome  as  an  author.  He 
has  here  given  us  a  book  of  good  size,  in  a  beautiful  dress,  and  with  a  fine 
engraving  of  Dr.  Judson.  It  designs  to  sketch  his  life  and  labors,  and 
thereby  develop  the  character  of  this  noble  man.  Nearly  one  half  of  its 
pages  are  occupied  with  extracts  from  his  own  writings.  In  connection 
with  these  we  have  a  succinct  and  graphic  history  of  the  Burman  Mission, 
which  will  be  here  reviewed  with  deep  interest  by  the  reader. — Christian 
Chronicle  (Baptist.) 

Published  by 

DERBY,  ORTON  £  MULLIGAN,  Buffalo. 

DERBY  &  MILLER,  Auburn. 


THE  LIFE  OP  THE  EMPRESS  JOSEPHINE, 
first  wife  of  Napoleon.  By  P.  C.  HEADLET.  12mo, 
pp.  378.  Derby,  Miller  &  Co.,  Auburn,  N.  Y.  Price,  1.25. 

There  are  few  of  the  female  characters  of  modern  history  whose  lives 
abound  with  more  interesting  events  than  that  of  the  Empress  Josephine. 
Her  whole  course  was  one  of  romantic,  and  also  of  tragic  interest.  If  the 
illustrious  husband  was  eminent  far  above  other  men  of  his  time,  for  vast 
intellect  and  prodigious  achievements,  Josephine  seemed,  in  the  more  lofty 
and  majestic  traits  of  character,  to  transcend  the  most  distinguished  of 
her  female  cotemporaries.  Like  her  husband,  she  is  a  great  subject  for 
biography.  Many  memoirs  have  been  written  of  her,  possessing  more  or 
less  merit,  but  none  have  been  without  interest.  The  author  of  the  pres 
ent  book  has,  we  think,  been  very  successful.  It  is  by  for  the  most  inter 
esting  history  of  Josephine  that  we  have  yet  seen.  He  seems  to  have  had 
recourse  to  the  best  sources  for  his  materials,  which  he  has  combined  and 
put  together  with  skill  and  judgment.  His  style  is  flowing,  elegant,  and 
often  eloquent.  In  short,  it  is  a  book  well  worth  reading.  It  will  not  fail 
to  attract  the  public  attention.  As  to  the  mechanical  execution  of  the 
book,  it  is  but  justice  to  the  proprietors  to  say,  that  it  will  compare  favor 
ably  with  the  productions  of  the  press  of  any  city  in  the  Union.  It  con 
tains  a  fine  mezzotint  portrait  of  Josephine,  showing  a  beauty  of  person 
equaled  only  by  the  moral  grandeur  of  her  character. —  Washington  Union. 

It  is  not  without  its  sparkling  gems.  Occasional  flashes  of  thought 
make  the  reader  pause  to  contemplate  their  freshness  and  beauty,  and  re 
veal  a  well  stored  mind,  in  sympathy  with  the  noblest  human  truits— iu 
close  communion  with  the  glories  of  nature.  His  text,  too,  is  happily 
chosen.  Who  has  not  felt  a  lingering,  peculiar,  undefinable  interest  in  the 
highly  extraordinary  and  tragic  career  of  the  Empress  Josephine  ?  Would 
it  not  extend  this  notice  too  far,  we  should  like  to  touch  the  more  promi 
nent  of  the  many  eventful  passages  which  marked  the  history  of  this  re 
markable  child  of  superstition,  to  gaze  for  a  moment  upon  the  vacillating 
star  of  her  destiny,  and  trace  its  luminous  ascent  from  the  veriest  depths 
of  agonizing  gloom  and  despair,  to  the  loftiest  pinnacle  of  worldly  splen 
dor  and  renown,  where  she  grasped  for  a  moment  the  fleeting  phantom  of 
happiness,  only  to  sink  again  into  the  arms  of  misfortune,  and  feel  still  more 
keenly  the  bitter  pangs  of  adversity.  But  all  this  will  be  found  in  a  very 
readable  form  in  this  interesting  volume,  and  we  cheerfully  commend  it  to 
notice. —  Utica  Observer, 

We  do  not  know  of  a  biography  of  this  important  and  interesting  per 
sonage,  so  complete  in  its  historic  details,  and  so  congenial  to  the  spirit  of 
her  life,  as  this ;  while  it  has  also  the  advantage  of  a  popular  style,  and  of 
that  view  of  the  subject  which  accords  with  the  general  sentiment.  Mr . 
Headley  writes  in  a  clear,  well  sustained  and  engaging  style — evidently 
entertaining  a  warm  approbation  of  his  subject,  and  alive  to  the  sublimity 
and  purity  of  her  life.  Treating  upon  one  of  the  most  important  epochs 
of  French  history,  the  work  is  finely  adapted  to  enlist  the  interest  of  the 
reader,  and  to  supply  a  kind  and  degree  of  information  not  readily  acces 
sible  elsewhere.  It  can  hardly  fail  of  proving  a  highly  popular,  as  it  is  a 
highly  creditable  work. — N.  Y.  Evangelist. 

The  writer  of  this  book  is  a  brother  of  J.  T.  Headley,  author  of  "Napo 
leon  and  his  Marshals,"  "  Washington  and  his  Generals,"  &c.  There  is  a 
strong  family  resemblance  between  the  two.  The  qualities  which  have 
given  such  a  wide  celebrity  to  the  one  seem  to  be  fully  enjoyed  by  the  other. 
Both  brothers  are  characterized,  by  that  peculiar  vividness  and,  so  to  speak, 
intensity  of  style  which  always  makes  a  book  readable  and  interesting. — 
Amherst  Express. 

Published  by  DERBY,  ORTON  &  MULLIGAN,  Buffalo. 

DEEBY  &  MILLER,  Auburn. 


YOUATT  ON  THE  STRUCTURE  AND  DIS 
EASES  OP  THE  HORSE,  with  their  Remedies  ; 
also  practical  rules  to  Buyers,  Breeders,  Breakers,  Smiths, 
&c.  Brought  down  to  1849,  by  W.  C.  SPOONER,  author  of 
several  veterinary  works.  With  a  chapter  on  the  United 
States,  by  HENRY  S.  RANDALL.  Price,  $1.50. 

Youatt  is  the  only  man  who  has  written  the  horse  out  in  «xtenso ;  others 
have  written  on  the  horse,  or  about  the  horse,  and  we  have  an  abundance 
of  treatises,  offering  us  light  in  regard  to  his  diseases  ;  but  Youatt's  work 
is  the  foundation  of  all  that  has  been  produced  since  his  time  of  any  value, 
and  it  will  probably  be  a  long  while  before  any  author  will  come  forward 
to  take  his  place  as  authority  hi  regard  to  the  domestic  animals  of  which 
he  has  written. 

The  question  may  be  asked  if  we  need  another  edition  of  Youatt,  since 
it  is  but  a  few  years  since  Mr.  Skinner  gave  us  the  work  under  his  edito 
rial  supervision.  This  question  will  be  answered  by  stating  the  peculiar 
object  aimed  at  in  the  present  volume.  It  has  been  the  aim  of  the  pub 
lisher  to  reduce  the  size  without  lessening  the  value  of  the  book.  In  do 
ing  this,  the  style  has  been  somewhat  changed,  by  omitting  minute  de 
scriptions,  and  those  elaborated  passages  which  rather  served  to  confuse 
the  common  reader.  The  language  of  Youatt  is  also  simplified  by  substi 
tuting  popular  words  for  those  which  are  scientific  in  many  instances  when 
no  good  reason  existed  for  retaining  the  latter. 

The  design  has  been  to  produce  an  edition  of  Youatt  fully  adapted  to 
popular  use.  In  this,  so  far  as  can  be  judged,  the  publishers  have  suc 
ceeded.  The  style  of  the  book,  so  far  as  proper  typography  and  engray- 
ings  are  concerned,  is  greatly  superior  to  that  of  former  editions.  Those 
who  keep  horses  will  do  well  to  procure  Youatt ;  they  will  hardly  do  bet 
ter  than  with  this  edition. — Prairie  Farmer. 

Any  one  at  all  conversant  with  that  noble  animal  the  horse,  is  well  aware 
of  the  merits  of  Youatt's  admirable  work  on  this  subject.  Mr.  Spooner, 
a  veterinary  surgeon  of  high  standing,  wrote  a  valuable  supplement  for  the 
late  English  edition,  bringing  the  science  down  to  1849.  This,  Mr.  Ran 
dall,  with  excellent  judgment,  has  incorporated  into  the  body  of  the  vol 
ume  before  us,  in  foot-notes,  under  the  different  appropriate  heads  of  the 
work.  We  think  this  quite  an  improvement  on  the  English  edition.  Mr. 
Randall's  part  of  the  work  is  well  done,  and  as  the  publishers  have  brought 
it  out  in  handsome  style,  we  trust  the  book  will  have  a  large  sale. — Amer 
ican  Agriculturist. 

An  indispensable  book  for  every  owner  of  this  noble  and  useful  animal. 
School  Journal. 

Every  man  who  owns  a  good  horse — the  noblest  as  well  as  the  most  use 
ful  of  animals — owes  it  to  himself  to  understand  well  matters  pertaining 
to  his  healthy  preservation.  Randall's  "  Spooner's  Youatt "  is  the  greatest 
work  of  the  age  upon  this  particular  topic. — American  Courier. 

No  less  valuable  than  the  animal  it  describes.  Every  man  who  owns  or 
drives  a  horse,  needs  this  book  as  much  as  a  horse  needs  a  harness  in 
which  to  perform  his  labors,  if  he  would  know  how  to  make  his  beast  of 
the  greatest  possible  service  to  him. — Boston  Farmer. 

Published  by  DERBY,  ORTON  &  MULLIGAN,  Buffalo. 

DERBY  &  MILLER,  Auburn. 


NOBLE  DEEDS  OF  AMERICAN  WOMEN.  With 
biographical  sketches  of  some  of  the  more  prominent.  Ed 
ited  by  J.  CLEMENT.  With  an  Introduction  by  Mrs.  L.  H. 
SIGOURNEY. 

Notices  of  the  Press. 

The  work  is  characterized  by  good  taste  and  judgment.  Though  a 
portion  of  the  contents  have  elsewhere  appeared,  more  than  two  hundred 
of  the  pages  are  entitled  to  be  considered  as  original.  These  are  well  wor 
thy  of  the  subject  and  the  author's  reputation  as  a  writer,  both  in  prose 
and  poetry. — New  York  Recorder. 

The  work  now  before  us  is  edited  by  a  Buffalonian,  Mr.  Clement,  who 
is  well  known  as  the  popular  editor  of  the  Western  Literary  Messenger. — 
Buffalo  Courier. 

It  is  one  of  those  books  that  you  can  open  at  almost  any  place  and  be 
sure  of  finding  something  both  interesting  and  instructive.  It  should  be 
read  by  all  who  want  to  know  who  of  their  countrywomen  are  entitled  to 
a  high  place  in  the  pages  that  commemorate  the  lives  of  the  great  and 
good. — Lockport  Democrat. 

The  volume  is  ornamented  with  an  engraving  of  Mrs.  Washington, 
from  Stuart's  picture,  and  is  in  every  respect  an  honor  to  the  Buffalo 
press. —  Syracuse  Star. 

Such  deeds  deserve  to  be  recorded,  as  well  iu  honor  of  the  illustrious 
actors,  as  for  the  instruction  of  those  who  have  succeeded.  This  is  an 
excellent  collection,  and  well  got  up,  and  we  commend  the  volume  as  one 
containing  instruction  with  entertainment,  and  well  worthy  of  a  place  in 
every  family  library. —  Cincinnati  Times. 

The  Introduction  by  Mrs.  Bigourney  contains  more  common  sense  views 
of  woman's  sphere,  duties,  and  pleasures,  than  ever  emanated  from  a 
score  of  Woman's  Rights  Conventions. — Cleveland  Herald. 

It  embraces  anecdotes  of  an  exceedingly  interesting  character,  prepared 
with  much  taste  and  judgment.  The  literary  reputation  of  the  editor  is  a 
guarantee  for  the  faithful  performance  of  his  part  of  the  work. — Ulica 
Register. 

A  book  with  such  pasturage  as  this  for  the  patriotic  spirit,  needs  no 
commendation.  Every  American  will  eagerly  possess  himself  of  a  copy, 
and  make  it  a  chosen  companion  in  the  field  and  at  the  fireside. — Literary 
World. 

This  is  a  work  of  480  pages,  of  excellent  letter  press,  in  Derby's  best 
style.— Columbus  (O.)  Statesman. 

We  hope  the  volume  may  be  largely  circulated.  It  is  enriched  with  a 
graceful  Introduction  by  Mrs.  Sigouruey,  and  the  letter  press  reflects  the 
highest  credit  on  the  enterprising  publishers  of  the  metropolis  of  the 
Lakes. — Philadelphia  Chronicle. 


j2^"Agents  wanted  to  sell  the  above,  with  other  valuable 
Books,  a  list  of  which,  with  the  wholesale  and  retail  prices, 
will  be  forwarded  on  application,  post-paid,  to 

DERBY,  ORTON  &  MULLIGAN,  Buffalo. 
DERBY  &  MILLER,  Auburn. 


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3    12001 

vOCT  0  1  201 

SEP  0  1  2006 

FORM  NO.  DD6                        UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA,  BER 
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